How long is the Channel Tunnel? From the UK to Belgium by Eurostar through the Channel Tunnel. From theory to practice

The North and South tunnels were completed on May 22, 1991 and June 28, 1991, respectively. Equipment installation work followed. On May 6, 1994, Queen Elizabeth II of Great Britain and French President François Mitterrand officially opened the tunnel.

The Eurotunnel is a complex engineering structure, including two circular track tunnels with an internal diameter of 7.6 meters, located at a distance of 30 meters from each other, and a service tunnel with a diameter of 4.8 meters located between them.

The journey from Paris to London takes two hours and 15 minutes, and from Brussels to London two hours. Moreover, the train stays in the tunnel itself for no more than 35 minutes. Since 1994, Eurostar has carried more than 150 million passengers, and passenger numbers have been growing steadily over the past decade.

In 2014, 10.4 million passengers used Eurostar services.

The European Union has approved the takeover of Eurostar by the French railway operator SNCF. Once the deal is completed, SNCF will have to allow competing firms to fly the same routes.

The material was prepared based on information from RIA Novosti and open sources

The idea of ​​connecting continental Europe and Foggy Albion has been in the air for a long time. More precisely, already in the middle of the eighteenth century they began to talk about such a possibility at the official level. And finally, the University of Amiens announced a competition for the best tunnel design. It was won by a certain Nicolas Desmarais, whose manuscript on the union of England with France earned the first prize. But for now it was just a theory.

From theory to practice

It was only at the beginning of the nineteenth century that the engineer Albert Mathieu-Favier proposed a tunnel that could be dug 10 meters below the seabed of the strait. To carry out the work, teams were chosen. It was proposed to solve the lighting issue with the help of oil lamps, and for air exchange it was planned to make air ducts located above 5 meters above sea level.

But this project remained on paper for almost 32 years. In 1832, seven more proposals appeared from the French side, engineer Aimé Tomé de Gamon. One of them received the approval of the French side. It was up to England. It was not until 1876 that parliaments on both sides gave permission for construction, which began on both sides in 1881.

However, due to the deterioration of relations between the countries, construction had to be stopped for more than 100 years. Only in the 80s did England and France resume construction plans and announce a tender.

His project “Euro Tunnel” won, which provided maximum manufacturability at minimum costs. The construction itself began in 1987, when nine tunneling shields got to work. Each of them was about 200 meters long with eight-meter rotors and tungsten carbide cutters. In total, three tunnels were laid (two main and one service), as well as a separate land tunnel.

More than 8 thousand workers and 5 thousand engineers from two countries took part in the project. Construction and finishing were completed in 1994.

To date

Currently, the Eurotunnel is a two-row railway tunnel with a total length of 51 kilometers, of which 39 are in the English Channel itself.

Interestingly, it was not always used for its intended purpose. For example, if you climb into or hide in a cargo truck, you can become an illegal refugee, a migrant from one country to another. At least this was the case in the twentieth century. Now this is somewhat more complicated, since there is listening equipment in the tunnel that helps detect people in containers.

Over the years of operation, 5 major accidents occurred in the tunnel, which did not result in human casualties. And the tunnel itself and the company servicing it were on the verge of bankruptcy twice, but everything was resolved successfully

Today, about 10 million people annually use the opportunity to get from London to Paris in 2.5 hours.

The idea of ​​connecting Great Britain with the continental part of Europe with the help of a single engineering structure has visited the best minds on both sides of the strait for several centuries. Calculations were even made to determine which was preferable: a bridge or a tunnel. Napoleon Bonaparte intended to begin construction, but some historical circumstances prevented this. The actual Channel Tunnel was only put into operation at the end of the twentieth century. Not counting preliminary preparations, the actual construction work took about seven years.

Channel Tunnel. Characteristic

There were many construction projects. The one that was ultimately chosen turned out to be optimal both technically and economically. The length of the Channel tunnel is 51 kilometers, of which 39 are located directly under the strait itself. A railway tunnel operating in both directions simultaneously. Ensures the passage of both freight and passenger trains. A significant part of the cargo turnover is made up of passenger car traffic on open platforms. The Channel Tunnel allows you to get from London to Paris or back in just over two hours. It takes from twenty minutes to half an hour to overcome the tunnel itself.

Driving is carried out in accordance with English rules: on the left. the entire distance of the journey allows the train to develop a sufficiently high speed. The most surprising thing is that the grandiose Channel Tunnel is not at all the largest in the world. It is inferior to the Japanese Seikan and the Swiss

Some technical details

In fact, the Eurotunnel, as it is often called, consists of three parallel underground structures. Two of them carry traffic in opposite directions. And between them there is a third one, of smaller diameter. Every 375 meters it has exits to the main highways. The middle tunnel performs the functions of technical support and repair. It also allows you to establish stable ventilation throughout the entire underground space and avoid the so-called piston effect - high air pressure in front of a moving locomotive. In addition, it is designed to ensure the safety of all transport communications. In the event of an emergency, passengers must be evacuated along it. occurred several times over the two decades of operation of the tunnel, but the system managed to prove its reliability during its operation.

Not long ago, an underwater tunnel appeared on the European continent between France and England, with a total length of 51 kilometers, of which 39 kilometers are under water. There are two branches of railway tracks in this tunnel. This structure is considered the longest on the continent of Europe. Today, residents of not only two neighboring countries, but residents of the entire planet can get from the territory of continental Europe directly to good old England. The travel time of the train through the underwater part of the structure will take no more than twenty minutes, a maximum of thirty-five minutes, and the entire tunnel under the English Channel will be passed by the train. The entire journey from Paris to London will take no more than two hours and fifteen minutes. The grand opening of the constructed structure took place on May 6, 1994.

This railway Eurotunnel occupies third position in the world ranking. The Gotthard tunnel is considered the longest tunnel; its length parameters are fifty-seven kilometers and one hundred meters. On the second line of this indicator is the Seikan structure, with a length of fifty-three kilometers and eight hundred meters. And yet, the French and British do not want to give up the palm, noting that the underwater part of the Channel Tunnel is larger compared to the Seikan structure, because the length of its underwater part is twenty-three kilometers three hundred meters.

The idea of ​​creation

The first ideas and first projects for the construction of a tunnel under the English Channel appeared at the end of the eighteenth - at the beginning of the nineteenth century. The Nord-Pas-de-Calais region was proposed as a construction site.

The French engineer Albert Mathieu-Favier proposed the idea of ​​building such a structure in 1802. In his project, the Channel Tunnel was to be illuminated through the use of oil lamps. Horse-drawn carriages were offered as transport for travelers and business people. The project provided for the creation of ventilation in the form of vents leading to the sea surface. The price of such a structure at that time was equal to one million pounds sterling. In the twenty-first century, in 2005, this amount would already be equal to sixty-six million four hundred thousand pounds sterling.

When the fighting died down and a peace treaty was concluded between the two states of France and England, Napoleon Bonaparte invited England to get acquainted with this project. However, due to the resumption of military battles on the territory of the European continent, the project was not implemented. The Eurotunnel of that time did not appear. Moreover, in the British Parliament, Lord Palmerston's indignation knew no bounds. He spoke briefly and sternly in English: “There is no point in spending money directing it to shorten the distance with a neighboring state, because it is already very short.”

Half a century passed, and with the onset of 1856, another French engineer, Thomas de Gamond, proposed another project to create a tunnel under the English Channel, with the laying of railway tracks. Thus, France and England would become much closer. And if the French side approved this project, then on the shores of Foggy Albion they continued to doubt the feasibility of building such a structure. In this peak situation, Gamond manages to find an ally in the person of the British mining engineer Peter Barlow. Subsequently, sixteen years later, Barlow, along with his colleague Sir John Hawkshaw, began raising funds to ensure the construction of the lintel.

Three years later, in 1875, Peter William Barlow proposed a new project for the construction of a tunnel under the English Channel, which was based on the idea of ​​laying large-diameter steel pipes at the bottom of the strait, inside which the very desired tunnel would be located. But this project remained only on paper. At the same time, engineer Barlow is building the first metro line in his country. It will be the first line not only in the UK, but also on a global scale.

The idea of ​​​​building a tunnel structure continues to hover within the walls of the parliaments of the two states. As a result of paperwork, a resolution of the English and French parliament on the construction of the tunnel was born. But the whole project has not yet been implemented due to lack of financial support. A year later, the project begins to be implemented.

Throughout 1881, geological exploration surveys were carried out. With the arrival of two English-Beaumont drilling machines at the end of October of the same year, the construction of the structure came to life. Drilling is done from both sides. On the French coast, this is a place near the town of Sangatte; on the British coast, this place is chosen near the city of Dover in the town of Shakespeare Cliff.

The work had been going on for several months, when the idea began to float again in the English government and parliament that the construction of the tunnel would not contribute to the full security of the country, and enemy troops could easily penetrate into British territory. As a result, on March 18, 1883, construction stopped for an indefinite period. Since the beginning of construction work, the French dug a tunnel 1829 meters long, the British managed to overcome a greater distance, which was equal to two thousand twenty-six meters.

The next attempt to build a tunnel structure was made in 1922. The drilling took place near the town of Folkestone. Having overcome one hundred and twenty-eight meters, construction is frozen again, this time the reason was political considerations.

After the Second World War ended victoriously, the French and British returned to the implementation of the idea of ​​​​building a European tunnel. Since 1957, a formed group of specialists has begun work to find the optimal option for constructing such a long-awaited structure. It took a group of specialists three years to give their recommendations on the creation of two main tunnels and one service tunnel, which was to be located between the two main structures.

Construction

Another thirteen years passed, and in 1973 the project received general approval and went into operation. Regular financial proceedings lead to another stop in construction work in 1975. By that time, a test tunnel had been dug; its length was only two hundred and fifty meters.

Nine years later, the governments of the two powers come to the conclusion that such a grandiose construction cannot be done without attracting private capital. After publication in 1986, specialists and financial tycoons were offered four options for this unique project for consideration and discussion. Oddly enough, the most acceptable option turned out to be the one that was most similar to the project dated 1973. Progress during the discussion was visible to the naked eye. It took government officials and financial tycoons only twenty-three days to sign an agreement on the creation of a tunnel in the Canterbury area on February 12, 1986. True, its ratification took place only in 1987.

This last project involved connecting two cities, on the English side - this is a place near the city of Folkestone, and on the French coast - this is the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe city of Calais. The approved option gave the go-ahead for the construction of the longest track compared to other options under consideration. Since in these places the most pliable chalk geological soil layer was located, but the future Eurotunnel had to run at a greater depth, this deepening mark was equal to fifty meters from the bottom of the English Channel. At the same time, the northern part of the structure should have been higher than the southern part of the tunnel. Therefore, the French mine went to a depth of sixty meters, and the diameter was equal to fifty meters.

The work of the first tunneling shield for horizontal excavation began on December 15, 1987. A year later, on the last day of February, the creation of the so-called French double begins. This work consisted of drilling a tunnel for household needs and in case of unforeseen circumstances with a diameter of 4.8 meters. To dig the two main branches of the structure, the most powerful equipment of that time was used, with the use of tunneling machines, which ensured the laying of paths through the rocky soil. The diameter of each of the main tunnels reached a value of 7.6 meters.

In the area of ​​the tunnel depth, simultaneous, continuous operation of eleven shields was carried out. Of this number of shields, three units worked on laying a tunnel, moving from the Shakespeare Cliff point towards the British terminal, this is already in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe city of Folkestone. Three other shield units advanced towards the sea, diving under the English Channel. Three French shields worked in the opposite direction, starting their journey from the mining area, near the town of Sangate. Two units of shields bit into the ground rock of three tunnels, heading inland, and from there the direction went to the terminal area, near Calais.

The operation of these machines made it possible to simultaneously strengthen tunnel walls with concrete segments. This achieved the enveloping formation of a tunnel shaft with one and a half meter rings. On average, no more than fifty minutes of time were spent on creating one such ring.

Models of British cars covered a distance of one hundred and fifty meters per day. French cars covered a path only one hundred and ten meters long. The forty-meter difference was due to different design features of the machines and different conditions for shaft drilling. In order to ensure the final result of meeting the broken shafts in the place specified by the project, a laser positioning system was used. Such high and precise technical support for the work made it possible to carry out the meeting at the exact designated location. It took place on December 1, 1990, where the depth of the tunnel shaft from the torrential bottom was forty meters. The size of the errors was small: vertically – 5.8 centimeters, and horizontally – 35.8 centimeters. French workers managed to dig sixty-nine kilometers of tunnel shafts, and the British dug eighty-four kilometers of tunnel shafts. The last meters of the broken trunks were achieved through the hard work of the diggers, because the trunks were broken through manually using shovels and picks. After the joining of the main tunnels took place, the French dismantled their equipment and removed it from the shafts, the British took their tunneling shields under their own power to a parking lot in the area of ​​the underground depot.

During the work period, to ensure the precise direction of the machines, the operator reviewed computer screens and video monitors. All tunnel work was provided by satellite observatories, which carried out direct calculations, ensuring high accuracy of the laid path. The use of narrow drills ensured the probing of calcareous clay samples, which in general was able to achieve directional accuracy of one hundred and fifty meters forward. The use of a laser beam in the direction of the harvester light-sensitive point provided assistance to the driver in choosing the right direction.

In the tunnel shafts, at a distance of eight kilometers from the coastline of each of the two countries, additional junctions were created through the use of tunneling machines. If necessary, they can be used to transfer trains to the adjacent tunnel.

During the construction period, team tunnellers, using small-sized equipment, created additional passages with the help of which it was possible to get into the service tunnel. Transitions have been created along the entire length of the main tunnels every three hundred and seventy-five meters.

The arch located above the service trunk served to carry out the channels. designed to reduce pressure in the two main tunnels.

Over the entire period of construction work, about eight million cubic meters of natural rock were selected. Each country participating in the construction disposed of the extracted land wealth at its own discretion. The builders of Great Britain, by using their part of the rock on their native coast, managed to create an entire artificial cape, which now bears the name of the great English playwright William Shakespeare. On this territory, with an area of ​​0.362 kilometers, a park area was created. The French side followed a simple path, but without benefit to society, they took and washed away the extracted soil with water, and subsequently sent all the resulting pulp into the depths of the sea.

It took no more than seven years to implement such a grandiose project, which was discussed, reflected, fought and broke spears for almost two centuries. The tunnel between England and France was created by the hands of thirteen thousand workers and engineers. A lot of people gathered at the ceremonial event marking the start of operation of the longest tunnel on the European continent, opened by representatives of the participating countries in the person of French President Francois Mitterrand and Queen Elizabeth II of Great Britain.

The meaning of the tunnel

Today, four trains operate in the Channel Tunnel. We are talking about high-speed trains of the TGV Eurostar type, which run along the route: from the Brussels Midi Zuid station, then the Paris Gare du Nord station and further to the English station in London St. Pancras, making intermediate stops at Lille stations, Calais and Ashford.

The maximum speed of such express trains reaches three hundred kilometers per hour. When passing through the tunnel part of the path, it decreases to one hundred and sixty kilometers per hour. On this line, on the French side, shuttle trains of the Eurotunnel Shuttle type are used, which can transport not only cars, but also vans and large passenger buses on the route from Folkestone to Sangatte. Using a special system of loading operations, vehicle entry to the carriage site takes only eight minutes. Passengers do not move anywhere, but remain inside their vehicles. The line also operates Eurotunnel Shuttle freight trains, which are an open carriage platform. Freight transport is delivered to them; drivers of large trucks follow locally in a separate carriage. Such trains can deliver cargo to or any other cargo. In freight trains, traction is provided by the operation of electric locomotives of the British Rail Class-92 type.

The Eurotunnel is significant primarily for the society of the countries participating in the construction of this structure. We are talking about the same notorious traffic jams. There are significantly fewer of them. With regard to economic benefits and the presence of development potential, these two factors have a significant positive impact, primarily on the surrounding regions. The English southwest benefits evolutionarily and socially because they have fast, efficient and cheap transport on their land. But again, all this applies only to the population living in the nearest administrative units adjacent to the transport artery. As with everything that surrounds us, the significance of this building has its own negative phenomena, starting with environmental issues.

After a five-year operational period, the first results were summed up. They looked disappointing in the economic aspect, because there was no benefit as such. The British were harsher in their conclusions, making a disappointing statement that the British economy would have performed better if the Channel Tunnel had not existed at all. Some experts went even further, saying that the payback on the constructed structure will only be exceeded after a whole millennium has passed.

Incidents

As for the rest of the negativity, there is plenty of that too. And above all, this is due to the unsolvable problems of illegal immigrants who use any possible transport artery to get to the shores of Foggy Albion. Most of this unorganized people enter the UK, making their way onto freight train sites. There were cases when bright personalities from the immigrant environment showed a kind of master class, jumping from a bridge onto a passing train. Not all such somersaults ended happily; there were also casualties. Some representatives of the emigrant environment managed to penetrate into the carriage areas and hide in the skerries of the transported equipment. Such actions led to delays of trains and disruption of train schedules. In some cases, unplanned repairs were required. Over the course of a month, such extraordinary expenses amounted to five million euros. Several dozen emigrants managed to penetrate into the interior of the main tunnel, where they died.

Ultimately, the French side made additional expenditures in the amount of €5,000,000, installing a double fence and CCTV cameras, as well as ordering enhanced police patrols.

The Channel Tunnel's security system was tested eight times while artificially creating real emergencies by specific culprits.

The first incident began on November 18, 1996; it was necessary to eliminate the consequences of a fire that occurred in a tunnel on board a shuttle train transporting trucks. Thirty-four vehicle drivers were rescued from the burning train and taken to the service tunnel. Ambulance medical personnel transported eight people who had severe burns. The remaining passengers were evacuated by using another train going in the opposite direction. Fire crews fought the fire for several hours in conditions of low water pressure in the fire main, overcoming the effects of strong ventilation drafts and the presence of high temperatures.

The consequences of such a fire were as follows; There was serious damage along the two-hundred-meter length of the tunnel. The same number of meters of the tunnel shaft were partially damaged. In some tunnel sections, burnt concrete rings were discovered to a depth of fifty millimeters. The locomotive and some of the last cars were taken out of service.

All victims were provided with the necessary assistance, and their ability to work was fully restored. The design features of the tunnel shafts and the coordinated work of the security services of Great Britain and France made it possible to avoid casualties.

After three days, the Eurotunnel again gave the green light to freight trains through only one of the tunnels. The full resumption of passenger train traffic occurred two weeks later.

10.10. 2001 there is a sudden stop of the train in the middle part of the tunnel. As a result, in such emergency situations, panic arises in the passenger environment, especially among those people who are susceptible to attacks of claustrophobia. The evacuation of the passenger flow was carried out through the service tunnel passages, after a five-hour wait and uncertainty.

On August 21, 2006, one of the trucks that was being transported on the shuttle train platform caught fire. Transport traffic through the tunnel shafts was suspended indefinitely.

The next force majeure event occurs on September 11, 2008. On the French side of the tunnel part, a fire occurs in one of the carriages of a freight train traveling to France from the English coast. The train transported trucks. The driving crew consisted of thirty-two people, all of whom were evacuated. Fourteen drivers required hospitalization due to minor injuries and carbon monoxide poisoning. The fire in the tunnel raged throughout the night and the next morning. In the UK, in the town of Kent, huge traffic jams occurred as the road was blocked by police to prevent vehicles from getting close to the tunnel entrance.

Transport traffic along the two tunnel shafts was restored after 134 days.

On December 18, 2009, there was a sudden failure of one of the systems, in particular the tunnel power supply. This force majeure event occurred due to a sharp temperature change, which resulted in heavy snowfall in the northern part of French territory. Five trains stopped in the tunnel belly.

Experts found that such a stop was possible due to the unpreparedness of trains for operation in winter. There was no adequate level of protection for live lines and undercar space. Carrying out annual maintenance of all trains was an insufficient measure for the operation of trains in winter, cold conditions with low temperatures.

On January 07, 2010, the Eurostar passenger train, carrying two hundred and sixty passengers, suddenly stopped. The train followed the route Brussels - London. For two hours the train stood in a tunnel under the English Channel. A team of specialists along with an auxiliary locomotive was sent to the place where the train stood. The faulty train was towed away by the dispatched locomotive. In the conclusion of experts, the reason for the sudden stop was named - it was melted snow on the tunnel section of the track. There was snow in the electrical equipment compartments. After entering the tunnel, he simply melted.

On March 27, 2014, a fire started on the British coast in a building located near the entrance to the tunnel. Train traffic is stopped. All four Eurostar trains returned to their departure points: Brussels, Paris and London. The cause of the fire was a lightning strike. No people were hurt.

On January 17, 2015, smoke begins to pour from the depths of one of the tunnel shafts, and the movement of trains is suspended.

The cause of the fire in the Channel Tunnel was a truck that caught fire. The fire broke out in the tunnel part, near the entrance to it from the French side.

The passengers were evacuated in a timely manner. There were no casualties. Trains returned to the stations of their departure points.

This was the fourth incident since the beginning of the Eurotunnel’s operational period when a truck caught fire on the platform of a freight train.

The total cost of constructing the Channel Tunnel is an impressive £10000000000, taking into account all inflationary costs.

Finance

As for the financial side of operating the Eurotunnel, the costs have not yet been recouped. The first payment of dividends to shareholders was made based on operating results in 2009.

A year later, Eurostar's losses amounted to €58,000,000. The main reason is considered to be the global financial crisis.

Based on the results of the company's work in 2011, a profit of 11,000,000 € was received. During the period mentioned above, 19,000,000 people were transported. The cost of one Eurostar share on the stock market increased to 6.53 €. The dividend amount per share was €0.08.

Eurotunnel - (French tunnel sous la Manche, English Channel Tunnel or simply EuroTunnel) is a railway tunnel, about 51 km long, of which 39 km pass under the English Channel. The structure, opened on May 6, 1994, was declared one of the Seven Modern Wonders of the World by the American Society of Civil Engineers.

The Channel Tunnel links Folkestone, Kent in England with Coquelles near Calais in northern France under the English Channel in the Strait of Dover. The lowest point is 75 m. The English Channel Tunnel has the longest section laid under the sea in the world. In general, the largest is the Seikan Tunnel in Japan, its length is 53.85 kilometers and its depth is 240 meters. The tunnel is traversed by Eurostar high-speed passenger trains, as well as ro-ro trains, the world's largest international freight trains.

The idea of ​​​​creating a tunnel appeared back in 1802, but the first real project was proposed a century and a half later; construction began in 1988, and it was opened only in 1994. The total cost exceeded expectations by 80%, in addition, concessionaires from Eurotunnel (Eurotunnel) overestimated the potential traffic and therefore faced financial difficulties. Fires interrupted the work of the tunnel several times. Illegal immigrants and adventurers used the tunnel to enter the UK, forming a queue outside the Sangatte refugee camp, which was forced to close in 2002.

Eleven drilling machines from France and Britain were digging through layers of clay to dig two railway tunnels and a service tunnel. Car terminals are located at Sheriton (part of Folkestone) and Cockels and have links to British and French motorways.

Proposals for the creation of communication routes across the English Channel date back to Albert Metier's 1802 plan, according to which crews would move along an artificial bridge under the canal. For 150 years, the British government blocked all initiatives of this kind. In 1974, the French and British governments began construction of a tunnel at both ends, but the project was stopped by the British government due to financial problems. In 1985, the French and British governments paved the way for a new attempt. Eurotunnel, a group consisting of 10 construction companies and 5 banks, received the right to build the tunnel, or rather, to continue the project in 1974. Work began in 1988 and was completed in 1994. At 1985 prices The entire project cost £4,650 million (£10,153 taking into account inflation for 2007), the financial plan was exceeded by 80%. At the height of construction, 15,000 people were involved in the work at a time, costing about £3 million per day. Ten workers, including eight Britons, were killed during construction between 1987 and 1993, most in the early months.

The tunnel is used by three services: Eurotunnel Shuttle (originally Le Shuttle), ro-ro ships, including cargo ones; Eurostar passenger trains; and freight trains.

Eurotunnel's traffic estimate turned out to be overestimated, so the group of companies experienced some financial difficulties. In 1996, 2006 and 2008 freight trains started several fires, closing the tunnel for periods of time, although no one was seriously injured in any of the incidents. Five years after the opening, the financial situation remained almost unchanged, and therefore it was difficult to make any changes to the design. In 1996, the American Society of Civil Engineers, with the participation of Popular Mechanics, named the tunnel one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World.

Suggestions and attempts

In 1955, arguments about the need to protect the country seemed irrelevant due to the development of air transport. The British and French governments supported technical and geological research.

Construction work began on both banks of the canal in 1974; two tunnels were provided, one of them a service tunnel, where commuter cars could travel. In January 1975, to the disappointment of the French partners, the British government canceled the project. The fact is that the Labor Party came to power with doubts about entry into the EU, the growing cost of the project (up to 200%) and problems in the national economy. By that time, the British company TBM was ready to work, and the Ministry of Transport was ready to finance 300 experimental meters. However, representatives of the British side soon abandoned this short tunnel.

In 1979, the “Mouse-hole Project” was proposed for consideration by the Conservative Party, which came to power in Great Britain. His concept is the only railway tunnel with a service tunnel, but without terminals at the exits. The British government stated that it was not interested in this project, but Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher said that if this project was private, no questions would arise. In 1981, British and French leaders Margaret Thatcher and François Mitterrand agreed to create a working group as part of a private project and in April 1985 the process of reviewing the design of the future tunnel took place. The following were submitted for consideration:

• Railway plan based on the 1975 project Channel Tunnel Group/France-Manche, abbreviated CTG/F-M
• Eurobridge - a 4.5 km long bridge in the shape of a pipe
• Euroroute - a 21 km long tunnel between artificial islands, which, in turn, were planned to be reached by bridges
• Channel Expressway is a wide tunnel with ventilation towers in the middle of the channel.

The protesters united in a company called Flexilink. In 1975, no protest campaign was organized; the state owner was one of the largest railway companies, Sealink. Flexilink continued its opposition activities in 1986-1987. At the same time, public opinion unanimously supported the project, but safety issues, in particular various incidents, caused fear, which led to the reduction of the list of candidates for work on the project to a single company, CTG/F-M.

Organization

The Channel Tunnel Group includes two banks and five construction companies, while its French counterpart, France-Manche, has three banks and five construction companies. The role of banks is to provide financing advice and secure loans. On July 2, 1985, the groups merged as Channel Tunnel Group/France-Manche, CTG/F-M. Their design was based on the 1975 plans and also highlighted the environmental side of the project.

The construction and decoration were entirely carried out by ten construction companies of the CTG/F-M group. The French terminal and the section to Sungate were developed by five French construction companies united in the GIE Transmanche Construction group. The English Terminal and the section to Shakespeare's Cliff were developed by five English construction companies as part of the Trankslink Joint Venture. The two companions were linked by TransManche Link (TML), a French-English organization. The Maître d'Oeuvre is an engineering company hired by Eurotunnel to oversee the development of the project and report to governments and banks.

In France, with a long tradition of investing in infrastructure, the project received widespread approval and the French National Assembly funded the project in April 1987, followed by the Senate in June 1987. In the UK, select committees examined the proposal outside Westminster, in Kent. In February 1987, the Channel Tunnel project had its third reading and was approved by 94 votes to 22 against. The Channel Tunnel Act became British law in July. The BOOT Channel Tunnel project was accepted. TML will build and design the tunnel, but the financing was provided through a separately registered entity: Eurotunnel. CTG/F-M became part of the Eurotunnel and signed a contract with TML; however, the British and French governments monitored the progress of work and the level of safety of the process. The British and French governments gave Eurotunnel a 55 (later 65) year loan to pay off its debts and pay dividends. A Railway Usage Agreement was signed between the Eurotunnel, British Rail and the Société Nationale des Chemins de fer Français, guaranteeing future income in exchange for the railways taking up half of the tunnel .

Private investment has reached unprecedented levels. The initial amount of £45 million raised by CTG/F-M was increased by £206 from private contributions, a further £770 million was added when press and television were brought in, and the syndicate bank arranged a loan of £5 million. Overall, all private investment at 1985 prices amounted to £2,600 million. By 1994 costs in 1985 prices were £4,650, or 80% more. This was partly due to problems with increasing safety and environmental requirements. The final amount exceeded the planned amount by 140%.

Progress

The Eurotunnel completed the project on time and the tunnel was opened by Queen Elisabeth II and French President François Mitterrand in Calais on May 6, 1994. The Queen traveled through the tunnel to Calais on the Eurostar train, which was nose-to-nose with President Mitterrand's train from Paris. As part of the ceremony, President Mitterrand and the Queen traveled on Le Shuttle to a similar event in Folkestone. The Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL), today called High Speed ​​1, extends 111 km from St Pancras railway station in London to the Channel Tunnel in Folkestone in Kent. Its cost is £5.8 million. On 16 September 2003, British Prime Minister Tony Blair opened the first section of Expressway 1, from Folkestone to north Kent. On 6 November 2007, the Queen officially opened Expressway 1 at St Pancras International Station, replacing the conventional rail line to Waterloo International Station. Express Line 1 trains travel at speeds of up to 300 km/h, traveling from London to Paris in 2 hours 15 minutes, and from London to Brussels in 1 hour 51 minutes.

Usage and flights

The number of passengers and cargo transported increases every year. The number of cargo flights fell in 1996-1997. due to a fire in November 1996 at the British terminal at Cheriton in west Folkestone. Terminal services are connected to the M20 motorway. The White Horse at Folkestone is the last thing passengers in England see when they board a train at Cheriton. Services offered by the tunnel:

• Eurotunnel Shuttle (originally Le Shuttle) - road for ro-ro cruisers
• Eurostar passenger trains
• Freight trains

Traffic on both cargo and passenger flights was initially overestimated, although Eurotunnel carefully calculated future fees. Although traffic in canal areas (close to sea and air) was predicted correctly, high competition and reduced traffic resulted in lower revenues. IN

Passenger traffic volume

Passenger traffic peaked at 18.4 million in 1998, then fell to 14.9 million in 2003 and rose again to 16.1 million in 2008. When it was decided to build the tunnel, it was estimated that 15.9 million passengers would use Eurostar trains in the first year after opening. In 1995 - its first full year - the number of passengers slightly exceeded 2.9 million, reaching 7.1 million by 2000 and falling again to 6.3 million in 2003. However, Eurostar was also limited by a lack of expressways In Great Britain. After the opening of Expressway 1 (originally CTRL) to London in two stages - in 2003 and 2007. — traffic has increased again. In 2008, Eurostar carried 9,113,371 passengers through the Channel Tunnel, 10% more than last year, despite the 2008 fire.

Freight traffic volume

Freight traffic volumes are volatile, falling sharply in 1997 due to a freight train fire. Since then, the volume has been growing, the tunnel has proven its competitiveness with the sea. Traffic volumes are now almost identical to Eurotunnel predictions in the 1980s, but calculations in 1990 and 1994 turned out to be overestimated. In the first year, freight train traffic was expected to be 7.2 million tons, but in 1995 this figure stood at 1.3 million tons. The maximum volume of transportation was recorded in 1998 - 3.1 million tons. However, due to unresolved issues, this figure returned to 1.21 million tons in 2007, adding slightly to 2008's 1.24 million tons. However, taking into account suburban cargo flights, a gradual and constant increase in traffic can be traced, from 6.4 million tons in 1995, to 18.4 million tons in 2003 and 19.6 million tons in 2007. Eurotunnel's subsidiary is Europorte 2. In September 2006, EWS, Britain's largest rail operator, announced it would end French-English government subsidies of £52 million to cover the Channel Tunnel's "Minimum User Charge" (subsidy of about £13,000 per train with 4,000 trains per year), freight trains will stop operating from November 30.

Economic situation

Eurotunnel shares were issued at £3.50 per share on 9 December 1987. By mid-1989 the price had risen to £11.00. Delays and exceeding the planned cost of the facility “dropped” the value of shares; During the demonstrations in October 1994, the share price reached its lowest level. Eurotunnel delayed payments in September 1995, fearing bankruptcy. In December 1997, the British and French governments extended the loan term by 34 years until 2086. Financial restructuring of Eurotunnel in mid-1998 reduced the debt and financial burden. However, despite the restructuring, The Economist stated in 1998 that Eurotunnel would have to increase prices, traffic and stock to survive the period. An analysis of the costs and benefits of the Channel Tunnel showed that the British economy fared better if the Tunnel had not been built. As part of the same Project, Eurotunnel was obliged to study the possibility of building an additional tunnel. In December 1999, designs for a conventional tunnel and a railway tunnel were submitted to the British and French governments, but it was decided that the design did not meet the requirements for a second tunnel. A tripartite agreement between Great Britain, France and Belgium defined the boundaries and zones where representatives of other countries could perform certain duties. For greater convenience, these powers are distributed at the ends of the tunnel, for example, a French post at the British exit from the tunnel and a British post at the French one. For some trains, the train itself is the control area. The French-English emergency plan coordinates the actions of British and French services.

Fires

There were three fires in the tunnel, due to which it had to be closed, all cases occurred on heavy freight trains.

1996

On November 18, 1996, a freight car caught fire, but no one was seriously injured. The exact cause is unknown, but the accident was not due to Eurotunnel equipment or problems with the rails; Arson may have been the cause. During the fire, temperatures were estimated to reach 1,000 °C (1,800 °F), and a 46-meter (151-foot) section of the tunnel was partially damaged, and a 500-meter (500-meter) section was also damaged to some extent. All flights resumed in full six months after the fire.

2006

The tunnel was closed for several hours on August 21, 2006, when the contents of one of the freight trains caught fire.

2008

On 11 September 2008, the Channel Tunnel fire started at 13:57 GMT. The incident occurred on a freight train heading to France 11 kilometers from the French exit from the tunnel. No one was killed, but several people were taken to the hospital suffering from strangulation and minor injuries. The tunnel was closed to all traffic; the undamaged South Tunnel reopened two days later. On February 9, 2009, renovations were estimated at €60 million.

Impact on regions

A 1996 European Commission report stated that Kent and north Calais could face a significant increase in traffic as a result of increased traffic in the Tunnel. In Kent, high speed rail is set to solve this problem. Regional development in Kent is accelerated by the tunnel's proximity, but limited by its proximity to London. It is mainly the traditional industry that benefits, and in general this benefit depends on the development of the international passenger station in Ashford, without which Kent would gradually find itself in the territory of a growing London. Nord-Pas-de-Calais enjoys the powerful effect caused by the proximity of the tunnel, thanks to which a great leap has been made in the manufacturing industry. Relieving congestion through projects such as the Channel Tunnel does not necessarily result in economic benefits for surrounding regions; the fact that these regions have high-speed transport and are actively involved in political activities is much more important for their development. The south-west of England likely benefits evolutionarily and socially from the proximity of fast and cheaper transport to mainland Europe, but this benefit is limited to some parts of the region. In general, the environmental impact of the tunnel is negative. Five years after the tunnel's opening, there has been little impact on the economy, making it difficult to associate major changes with the tunnel's arrival.

Homeless people and immigrants

Illegal immigrants and house seekers used the tunnel to enter Britain. By 1997, the problem had attracted the attention of the international press and the French Red Cross opened a center for immigrants in Santgate in 1999, using a warehouse that existed during the tunnel's construction; by 2002 it was holding up to 1,500 people at a time, most of them trying to enter the UK. On the one hand, most of them came from Afghanistan, Iraq and Iran, but Africa and Eastern Europe were also represented, albeit to a lesser extent. Most of those who arrived here traveled by freight train, and the rest by Eurostar trains. Although the tunnel was guarded and it was believed that it was impossible to penetrate there, emigrants even jumped from bridges onto moving trains. In several cases, people were injured during their journey through the tunnel; others were hidden among equipment, causing delays and sometimes even repairs. Eurotunnel said it was losing £5 million a month due to the problems. Dozens of emigrants died trying to get through the tunnel. In 2001 and 2002 During several demonstrations, groups of emigrants broke into Sagate (up to 550 in December 2001), they attacked the fences and tried to get through en masse. Immigrants also arrived as Eurostar passengers, but without identification documents. Local authorities in France and the UK called for Sungate to be closed, and Eurotunnel was ordered to do so twice. The UK accused France of not adequately policing Sungate, and France accused the UK of not having strict laws for immigrants. This caused other problems, including the detention of journalists. In 2002, after the European Commission failed to declare France that it was breaking EU rules by allowing free movement of goods, and citing delays and closures as a result of insufficient security, a double fence was built at a cost of £5 million, reducing the number of emigrants from 250 a week almost to zero. Other measures include CCTV cameras and increased police patrols. Sungate closed at the end of 2002 after the UK agreed to take in some emigrants.

Engineering

The service tunnel uses the Service Tunnel Transport System (STTS) and Light Service Tunnel Vehicles (LADOGS). Fire protection was a particular area of ​​criticism. Between the entrances at Beussingue and Castle Hill, the tunnel is 50.5 km (31 miles) long, of which 3.3 km underground on the French side, 9.3 km underground on the British side and 37 .9 km underwater. Thus, the English Channel Tunnel is the second railway tunnel in the world, after the Seikan Tunnel in Japan, but the longest underwater section is still at the English Channel. The average depth is 45 meters from the seabed. On the UK side, of the 5 million cubic meters (6.5*106 cubic yards) of excavated earth, 1 million cubic meters was used in the construction of the terminal, the remainder being hauled to Shakespeare's Crag behind the causeway, occupying 30 hectares of land. This land was subsequently used for Samphire Hoe Country Park. The environmental situation did not pose any risks to the project, and subsequent safety, noise and air pollution studies were generally positive. However, the environmental situation was affected by the high-speed line from the tunnel to London.

Research

Measurements of the depth of the strait by Thomas de Gamond in 1833-1867. showed that the maximum is 55 meters, and below there are geological layers. Research continued for many years with 166 offshore and 70 onshore drill holes and 4,000 km of seabed explored. Research was undertaken in 1958-1959, 1964-1965, 1972-1974. and 1986-1988 Research in 1958-1959 required the involvement of a metro and a bridge, as well as a dug area; this entire area was researched. At this time, marine geological research for engineering projects was just in its infancy, and there were no seismic instruments. Study 1964-1965 concentrated in the north on the English coast at Dover Bay, 70 boreholes were drilled into the rock-solid ground south of Dover Bay. After preliminary results and difficulties with access, the territory slightly to the south was explored in 1972-1973, where it was decided to build a tunnel. Other information also came from this research until it was closed in 1975. On the French side at Sungate a large shaft with several galleries was made. On the English side at Shakespeare's Cliff, the government has given permission to dig a 250-metre-diameter tunnel out of 4.5 metres. The modern tunnel was designed in exactly the same way as they tried to do in 1975. During the study in 1986-1997. it was found that 85% of all soil is chalk and limestone. For this purpose, geophysical techniques from the oil industry were used.

Geology

For the successful implementation of the canal tunnel project, a clear understanding of the geology and topography was necessary, as well as proven building materials for finishing the inside of the tunnel. Geological research is mainly in the chalk layer, partly on the spurs of the mountains in Weldon and Boulogne. The following characteristics were given:

• According to Vestegan's observations in 1698, the slopes on both are represented by Cretaceous rocks without significant changes
• The slopes consist of four geological strata, marine sedimentary rocks deposited 90-100 million years ago; the upper and middle chalk layers above the lower chalk layer and finally the waterproof alumina. A sand layer and glauconitic limestone were found between the chalk layer and the clay.
• The 25-30 meter chalk limestone layer (craie bleue in French) at the bottom of the chalk layer was considered the best place to build a tunnel. Chalk contains 30-40% clay, which makes it waterproof and at the same time easy for excavation and powerful without unnecessary support structures. Ideally, the tunnel would have been built 15 meters below the chalk limestone layer, allowing water to flow out of the openings and providing the fewest joints, but above the clay layer the pressure on the tunnel could increase, and high humidity and unpleasant odors were feared. On the English side of the canal the slope is about 5°, but on the French side it is 20°. Small offsets are present on both sides. On the English side the displacements are small, no more than a meter. But on the French side they reach up to 15 meters, to the anticlinal folds. These displacements are limited in width and filled with calcium, pyrite and clay. An increasing slope and some defects limited the choice of route on the French side. To avoid inclusions of other soils, we used special equipment to look for places with chalky limestone soil. On the French side, especially close to the coast, the chalk was harder and finer than on the English side. Therefore, different techniques were used on different banks.

The study did not identify any significant risks, but the Fosse Dangaered underwater valley and Castle Hill were expected to be affected. In 1964-1965 A geophysical survey of Fosse Dangered showed that the length of the valley is 80 meters and it is located 500 meters to the south, approximately in the middle of the channel. A 1986 study showed that underground rivers ran through the area where the tunnel was planned, so it was moved as far down and north as possible. The English Terminal would take place on Castle Hill, which comprises chalk beds, glauconic limestone and alluvial heavy clay. This area was fortified with buttresses and drainage galleries. The service tunnels were pilot projects before the main tunnels were laid in order to have advance knowledge of the geology, areas of eroded rock, and wet areas. Research samples were taken in service tunnels, including above, below and to the sides.

Tunnel

A typical service tunnel between two main railways. The connection between two railway tunnels shown in the diagram is represented by a piston needed to control the pressure changing due to the movement of trains. The tunnel between England and France was the largest project besides the Seikan Tunnel in Japan. The most serious risk facing any underwater tunnel is the proximity of water and its pressure on the tunnel surface. The English Channel Tunnel also had its own problem: since the investors in the project were mainly private companies and entrepreneurs, it was necessary to implement it as quickly as possible and pay off the lenders. The goal was to build: two railway tunnels with a diameter of 7.6 meters, 30 meters apart, 50 km long; a service tunnel with a diameter of 4.8 meters between the two main tunnels; pairs of perpendicular tunnels with a diameter of 3.3 meters connecting the railway tunnels with the service tunnel over a space of 375 meters; auxiliary 2-meter pistons connecting railway tunnels every 250 meters; two underwater caves connected to railway tunnels. The service tunnel was always built at least 1 km faster in order to become familiar with the composition of the soil; in the mining industry it was already necessary to build tunnels through chalk soils. Underwater intersecting caves have become a serious engineering problem. The French Cave was modeled after the Mount Baker Ridge Freeway Tunnel in the United States.

The British Cave was connected to the service tunnel before the main tunnel was built to avoid delays. Prefabricated segmental mounts were used in the TBM main engines, but differently on the French and English sides. On the French side, neoprene fastenings made of reinforced cast iron or reinforced concrete were used. On the English side, speed was preferred and segments were bolted together only where the geology required. The British tunnels used eight fastenings and a key segment, while the French side used five fastenings and a key segment. On the French side, a 55 meter shaft in Sungate with a diameter of 75 meters was used for the descent. On the English side, this site was located 140 meters below the top of Shakespeare's Cliff, where the New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) was first used. On the English side, underground tunnels were built from Shakespeare's Crag, as well as underwater ones, rather than from Folkestone. The platform at the base of the cliff was not large enough, so the excavated earth was placed behind a reinforced concrete dam, but on the condition that the chalk soils were transferred to a closed lagoon to avoid their dispersal. Due to limited space, the prefabricated factory was located on the Isle of Grain in the Thames Estuary. On the French side, due to insufficient soil impermeability, TBMs were used, putting pressure on the post.

The TBMs were hidden for the first 5 kilometers of the route, then they were exposed and rested on the chalky limestone soil. This minimized the pressure on the base of the tunnel and ensured maximum safety from flooding. Such actions on the French side required the involvement of five TBMs: two main sea vehicles, one main land vehicle (the engines allowed the vehicle to move 3 km in one direction, then change it and continue moving in the other direction using a different engine) and two vehicles in the service tunnel.