What are geysers? How are geysers formed? Why do geysers erupt periodically?

What a geyser is, ordinary people know mainly from school geography. Volcanologists, some tourists and residents of seismically active regions get to see this natural phenomenon live.

Terminology

By definition, a geyser is one of the manifestations of late volcanism, which is expressed in the periodic release of water in a liquid or vapor state into the air. In simple terms, this is a kind of source that gushes out of the ground at varying intervals. Geysers can be mud, water or steam, depending on the temperature and the presence of impurities along the path of their eruption.

Despite the rather banal definition, in fact this natural phenomenon is considered one of the most spectacular and mysterious on the planet. This is eloquently evidenced by the popularity of the most famous geysers, the flow of tourists to them does not dry up, despite a certain danger.

Physics of the process

In order to understand on what principle such a source operates and where so much hot water comes from underground, one should turn to the study of volcanic activity. After all, geysers are mainly formed not on their own, but near a more formidable and dangerous fellow. However, the volcano does not have to be active. The most famous and spectacular geysers are located on the site of extinct or sleeping giants.

Everyone knows from the school curriculum that in the depths of our planet there is hot magma. It is also known about her constant attempts to get out, sometimes this succeeds, which is accompanied by earthquakes. This process is very destructive and sometimes ends with a change in the landscape.

A dormant volcano, like an active one, contains hot magma inside itself, but it does not come out, waiting in the wings and accumulating energy. But, as you know, the bowels of the earth are no less rich in water, which, making its way to the surface, becomes springs, streams and even rivers. In order to understand what a volcanic geyser is, you need to imagine the following. Let's say that at a certain distance from the dormant magma one of the water flows. The water in it heats up, expands and tries to find a way out. Ultimately, she gets it in the form of a fountain or cloud of steam. It all depends on the exact temperature to which the heating occurred. It turns out that the volcano itself is sleeping, its energy is not enough to erupt magma, but it is quite enough to push out or even boil water.

Mud geyser

What it is, residents of settlements located near healing sites (and not only) know very well. Making its way to the exit, water passes through layers of a variety of rocks, dissolving them. In the case when a fountain shoots directly near a place passing through layers of frozen magma, it often remains more or less transparent. Encountering softer and more pliable rocks along the way, the water mixes with them, and a gurgling mud mass comes to the surface.

Quite often it contains microelements that are beneficial to humans, which, thanks to the comfortable temperature, form a thermal spring, ideal for treatment. Europe (in particular, Bulgaria), North America, Australia and New Zealand are rich in resorts built on the site of such geysers. Eastern Siberia has great potential, where this industry is not yet very developed, but there are all the necessary prerequisites for this.

Is a geyser dangerous?

Despite all its beauty and mystery, this natural phenomenon is a vivid example of the unsurpassed power and energy hidden in the bowels of the earth. Sometimes a geyser is just a warm lake with water periodically splashing onto the surface and looking quite peaceful and safe. Sometimes it is a multi-meter fountain, bursting out with all the force and suddenness. And it happens that a cloud of steam whistles out from under the ground, creating the impression that the planet is “breathing.”

Therefore, in order to know how safe it is to be near such a source, you need to understand what a geyser is in a particular case. And, being in the valley of an extinct volcano on an excursion, be sure to listen to the guide’s recommendations. After all, the main danger of most geysers lies in their suddenness. As a rule, tourists are not allowed close to powerful and too hot fountains.

The most famous geysers on the planet

They are located mainly in zones of volcanic activity. If we consider the most remarkable in terms of entertainment and scale, then first of all we should pay attention to Yellowstone National Park in the USA. It is a huge area where about 500 geysers are concentrated, which makes up 60% of all thermal springs on the planet. The largest of them is called Steamboat and reaches 120 meters.

Slightly smaller in size, but no less spectacular, the Valley of Geysers is located in Kamchatka. There are about 200 different sources here. Looking at such greatness of nature, you can fully understand what a geyser is. The definition cannot convey this in words. The beautiful and at the same time majestic play of water, steam and minerals is sometimes breathtaking.

Geyser Park in Iceland ranks third both in size and number of sources. The maximum height of the fountains here reaches 60 meters. This is undoubtedly stunning, but the height of the geysers is half that of Yellowstone Steamboat.

You can see what a geyser is by visiting the states of Nevada and Alaska, where there are also quite a few of them. The North Island of New Zealand and Chile are famous for them.

The most mysterious geyser

The American Fly deservedly received this status. Thanks to its rich mineral composition, its surroundings received a unique color. The fly is a collection of several fountains erupting from hills formed by minerals, reaching 1.5 meters and continuing to grow.

It is noteworthy that the geyser was created by man (albeit by accident). Drillers stumbled upon an underground thermal spring at the beginning of the last century while trying to build a conventional well. Currently, Fly is closed to tourists, but due to its height, the geyser is clearly visible from the road.

To understand what a geyser is, theoretical knowledge is not enough. To imagine all the beauty and power of this natural phenomenon, you need to go on a trip to see it with your own eyes.

Geysers, hot springs and mineral springs are the last echoes of menacing volcanic activity.

Geysers are springs in which boiling water erupts at regular intervals. With an explosion and roar, a huge column of boiling water, shrouded in thick clouds of steam, flies up in a large fountain, sometimes reaching 80 m.

The fountain flows for a while, then the water disappears, the clouds of steam dissipate, and a state of rest sets in.

The edges of such a pool and the adjacent area are covered with deposits of silica contained in boiling water. These deposits are called geyserite. Near some geysers, cones of geyserite form from a few centimeters to several meters in height.

Immediately after the geyser erupts, the pool is cleared of water, and at the bottom you can see a channel (vent) filled with water, going deep underground.

Before the eruption begins, the water rises, slowly fills the pool, boils, splashes out, then with an explosion a fountain of boiling water flies high.

Geysers are a very rare and beautiful natural phenomenon. It can be observed here (in Kamchatka), in Iceland, in New Zealand and North America. Small single geysers occur in some other volcanic areas.

In the eastern part of Kamchatka, south of Kronotsky Lake, there are many geysers in the valley of the river. Geysernaya. The river begins on the lifeless slopes of the extinct Kikhpinych volcano and in its lower reaches forms a valley up to 3 km wide. On the ledges of the slopes of this valley there are many hot springs, hot and warm lakes, mud pots and geysers.

About 20 large geysers are known here, not counting small ones that splash out water only a few centimeters. Near some of them the soil is warm, and sometimes even hot.

Many geysers are surrounded by deposits of multi-colored geyserite of bizarre shapes, similar to beautiful artificial lattices. Sometimes geyserite covers areas of several tens of square meters. For example, near the largest geyser in Kamchatka - the “Giant”, which throws out a huge fountain to a height of several tens of meters, a geyserite area of about a hectare has formed. It is all covered with sagging in the form of small stone roses of grayish-yellow color.

Geyser eruption. Photo: Geoffrey Plauche

Geyser in section. Dashes indicate water, circles indicate gases.

Nearby is the “Pearl” geyser, named after the shape and color of the geyserite deposits: with a mother-of-pearl tint similar to pearls. There is the “Sugar” geyser with abundant and beautiful deposits of pale pink geyserite. This is a pulsating source, the water from it is not thrown out like a fountain, but splashes out in even bursts.

The Pervenets geyser is located on a hot rocky platform almost on the very bank of the river. Noisy, near the mouth of the river. Geysernaya. The “Pervenets” pool, about one and a half meters in diameter and the same depth, is surrounded by large blocks of stones. If you look into the pool immediately after the eruption, you will see that there is absolutely no water in it, and at the bottom there is a hole or channel that goes obliquely into the depths. After some time, a rumble is heard from underground, similar to the noise of a motor: water begins to rise through the canal, gradually filling the pool. It boils, reaches the edges of the pool, rises higher and higher, splashes out and, finally, with an explosion, an oblique column of boiling water bursts out, shrouded in thick clouds of steam. The fountain rises to a height of at least 15-20 m. It blows for two or three minutes, then silence sets in, the steam dissipates, and you can look into the empty pool again without risk. After a short period of time, a hum is heard again and the geyser begins to operate again.

Iceland has long been famous for its hot springs, boiling rivers and geysers. In the valleys of almost all its rivers, rising clouds of vapor from boiling springs and geysers are visible. They are especially numerous in the southwestern part of the island. It is interesting to see the famous “Great Geyser” there. Its pool is about 18 m in diameter. The smooth bottom of the pool in the center turns into a rounded mouth about 3 m in diameter, similar in shape to the bell of a pioneer forge. The geyser channel goes to great depths, connecting underground through cracks with caves that are periodically filled with hot water and steam. The water temperature in the geyser on the surface is up to 80°, and in the channel at some depth up to 120°.

The eruption of the "Great Geyser" is very beautiful. It is repeated every 20-30 hours and lasts 2.5-3 hours. The “Big Geyser” gushes to a height of up to 30 m.

The harsh nature of Iceland forces residents to use some hot springs to irrigate their fields. Vegetables and grains are grown on heated soils. Hot water from springs is also used for heating houses in cities and towns. For example, the capital of Iceland, Reykjavik, is completely heated by hot springs.

On the North Island of New Zealand, the Waimangu geyser operated until 1904. It was the largest geyser in the world. During a strong eruption, its stream was thrown 450 m into the air. But now this geyser has completely disappeared. This is explained by a decrease of 11 m in the water level in the nearest lake. Tarawera.

On the shore of the lake Waikato (New Zealand) has a geyser called "Crow's Nest" ("Crow's Nest"), the eruption of which depends on the water level in the lake. If the water is high, the geyser erupts every 40 minutes; if the water level is low, the eruption occurs after 2 hours.

Numerous and varied hot springs and geysers are found in North America along the border of Wyoming and Montana. This picturesque place, surrounded by the high snowy ridges of the Rocky Mountains, is called Yellowstone National Park. It is a high plateau, cut by deep river valleys and lake depressions.

Several million years ago, very strong volcanic eruptions took place here, leaving behind this amazing corner of nature. Of the 200 geysers in Yellowstone Park, Old Faithful is considered the most famous. For many hundreds of years, it has not ceased its activity, just like some other geysers and hot springs in Yellowstone Park.

Imagine the enormous amount of heat these geysers and hot springs bring to the surface of the Earth! It is estimated that the heat from all of Yellowstone Park's springs could melt about 3 tons of ice per second.

Where does this heat come from?

Geysers occur in areas where uncooled magma lies close to the earth's surface. The gases and vapors released from it, rising, travel a long way along the cracks. At the same time, they mix with groundwater, heat it and themselves turn into hot water with various substances dissolved in it. Such water comes to the surface of the earth in the form of bubbling flammable springs, various mineral springs, geysers, etc.

Scientists suggest that underground the geyser consists of caves (chambers) and connecting passages, cracks and channels found in frozen lava flows. These caves are filled with circulating underground waters, at a shallow depth from which there are uncooled magma chambers.

It is known from physics that the boiling point of water at a pressure of 1 atmosphere at sea level is 100°.

If the pressure increases, the boiling point increases,

and as the pressure decreases, it decreases. The pressure of the water column in the geyser channel increases the boiling point of the water at the bottom of the channel. When heated from below, water begins to move; the heated lower layer of water becomes less dense and rises to the surface, and colder water from the surface goes down, where, warming up, it in turn rises, etc. Thus, vapors and gases, continuously seeping through cracks from the depths, warm water, bringing to a boil.

The sloshing of water reduces the weight of the water column in the channel; Consequently, the pressure at depth decreases and superheated water, being above the boiling point, instantly turns into steam. The steam pressure from below is so great that it pushes water out of the channel in the form of huge fountains of boiling water and clouds of steam.

GEYSERS (from the Isl. geysa - to gush * a. geyser, spouting spring; n. Springquelle, Geiser; f. source jaillissante; i. geiser) - sources that periodically emit hot water and steam. They are common in areas of modern or recently ceased volcanic activity, where there is an intense flow of heat from the magma chamber.

Geysers can take the form of small truncated cones with fairly steep slopes, low, very gentle depressions, basins, irregularly shaped pits, etc.; at their bottom or walls there are exits of pipe-like or slot-like channels. Geysers with an almost constant cycle duration are called regular, and those with a variable cycle are called irregular. The duration of individual stages of the cycle is measured in minutes and tens of minutes; the resting stage lasts from several minutes to several hours or days. The water emitted by the geyser is relatively clean, slightly mineralized (1-2 g/l), the chemical composition is sodium chloride or sodium chloride-bicarbonate, containing relatively a lot of silica, from which geyserite is formed at the channel outlet and on the slopes.

Geysers are known in the CCCP in Kamchatka; abroad - in Iceland, Canada, USA, New Zealand, Japan, China. Large geysers in Kamchatka were discovered in 1941 in the valley of the Geysernaya River, near the Kikhpinych volcano. In total, there are about 100 geysers in Kamchatka, of which about 20 are large, not inferior in size and force of eruptions to the active geysers of Iceland, the USA and New Zealand. The largest geyser in Kamchatka is the Giant, throwing out jets of water 40 m high and steam several hundred meters high. There are about 30 geysers in Iceland. Among the geysers of Yellowstone National Park (about 200), the largest are Giant and Old Faithful. The first emits steam and water to a height of up to 40 m with a period of 3 days, the second - to a height of 42 m every 53-70 minutes. The New Zealand geyser Waimangu - the largest and most powerful on Earth - acted irregularly with a period of 5 to 30 hours in 1899-1904; ejected about 800 tons of water with each eruption, the geyser’s action ceased due to a drop in the water level of neighboring Lake Tarawera by 11 m.

There are a number of hypotheses regarding the formation and periodicity of geyser activity. According to one of them, a necessary condition for the existence of geysers is that they are fed in the near-surface parts of the channel by superheated waters with a temperature above 100°C. As water rises up the channel, its pressure decreases and the water boils; at the same time, the elasticity of the resulting steam quickly increases, which, overcoming the water pressure in the channel, throws out water. When the geyser begins to flow, all the water in the channel boils and erupts due to a significant increase in the volume of the steam-water mixture.

The ejected water, somewhat cooled, partially falls into the geyser bowl and enters its channel. Most of the water seeps into the channel from the side rocks, heats up (and in the lower parts of the channel overheats), and again steam is formed and the steam-water mixture is released. The steam and hot water from the geyser can be used to heat buildings, greenhouses and operate power plants (see geothermal resources).

Mysterious phenomena

The mystery of the geysers

Geysers are one of the wonders of nature. In the beginning, there were 3 of the best places in the world to watch them. In New Zealand on the North Island, in Yellowstone National Park (USA) and in Iceland. It was the Icelanders who called the fountains of boiling water and steam bursting out of the ground with the word geysa(gushing). This is where the name “geyser” comes from.

In 1941, a whole valley of geysers was discovered in Kamchatka near the foot of the Kikhpinych volcano. Thus, there are now 4 places on the planet where boiling fountains erupting from the bowels of the earth most clearly manifest themselves.

Why do geysers erupt periodically?

It should be said that the mystery of geysers is inextricably linked with the frequency of their eruptions. For example, in Iceland there is a geyser called the Jumping Witch. At intervals of 2 hours, it throws out a boiling fountain to a height of 15 meters. For other similar fountains, the frequency of eruptions can vary from several minutes to hours and even days.

Thus, in Yellowstone Park, the Giant Geyser ejects steam and boiling water to a height of 40 meters every 3 days. And a similar fountain, the Old Faithful, shoots boiling water from the bowels of the earth every 70 minutes. You can set your watch by using some of these fountains, since the interval between emissions does not exceed a minute.

It is precisely this amazing periodicity that has haunted scientists at all times. At the beginning of the 19th century, the first speculative model of a geyser was created.

Scientists assumed that deep underground there was a large cave filled with hot underground waters. There is also a narrow channel through which superheated steam exits to the earth's surface. And underground heat is provided by layers of magma lying at shallow depths. But why does water boil intermittently?

An important observation was made in 1836. Using special methods, it was found that the temperature in the channel of the Great Geyser of Iceland increases with depth. But the most curious thing was that at great depths the water had a temperature of more than 100 degrees Celsius, but did not boil.

However, this was not a surprise to physicists at all. They proved a long time ago that the boiling point of water depends primarily on pressure. For example, in order for water to boil at a pressure 5 times higher than atmospheric pressure, it must be heated to 150 degrees Celsius. But at low pressure, water boils even at room temperature.

Geyser operating principle

Based on the natural mechanism of the dependence of boiling point on pressure, scientists have developed a model of how a geyser works. It looks like this: there is a long vertical narrow channel in the ground. It will fill with groundwater. Moreover, the deeper the layer of water, the greater the pressure in it. The water is heated by geothermal heat. Its temperature in the lower layers of the channel approaches the boiling temperature and, in the end, exceeds it.

The boiling layer of water begins to push upward the water that is located above. The pressure in it drops, and the upper layers, in turn, also begin to boil. This is how an avalanche-like process develops, as a result of which all the water in the underground vertical channel very quickly turns into boiling water and steam. The geyser spews its boiling contents onto the ground and again begins to fill with cold groundwater.

According to this hypothesis, the mystery of the geysers is explained quite logically. And the frequency of the eruption depends on the width and configuration of the underground channel, as well as on the rate of its filling with groundwater. The proximity of the heat source, which should heat the water mass and start the process of vaporization, is also of considerable importance.

But although this scheme looks quite attractive, no one has yet been able to prove its correctness. To do this, you need to build a man-made model that fully corresponds in its parameters to the natural equivalent. This has not been done to this day, and therefore geysers continue to keep their mystery and are rightfully considered a real miracle of nature.

GEYSERS (from the Icelandic geysa - to gush), springs that periodically emit hot water and steam. Geysers are common mainly in areas of modern or recently ceased volcanic activity. There are four stages in their cycle: rest, outpouring, eruption (gushing), soaring (some of them may not be expressed). Geysers with an almost constant cycle duration are regular, while those with a variable cycle are irregular. The presence of a resting stage distinguishes geysers from other pulsating (including boiling) sources. The duration of the cycle can be measured in minutes, hours, days and even years. The resting stage lasts from several minutes to several hours or days (the duration of the dormant and outpouring stages and their relationship with the duration of the cycle is individual for each geyser), the eruption stage lasts from one to several minutes, the soaring stage, if any, does not exceed several minutes. The water released from the springs is slightly mineralized (1-2 g/l), contains relatively a lot of silica, from which covers of geyserite (porous opal rock) are formed at the exit of the channel, which looks like a small truncated cone or a gentle depression (pit). Geysers are characterized by the height of the steam-water fountain and the mass of water ejected during one eruption (power).

There are a number of assumptions regarding the periodic regime of geyser activity. According to one of the most common hypotheses for the functioning of geysers (well model), proposed in the mid-19th century, there is a channel into which hot water with a boiling point higher than at atmospheric pressure (over 100 ° C) enters. Boiling does not occur because there is a fairly long column of cooled water above the hot water. As water enters, its level rises and after some time reaches the surface. The outflow (drain) begins, as a result of which the pressure in the area of contact between the cooled and hot water decreases and a moment comes when it becomes less than the boiling point of water. Boiling begins and the release of a steam-water mixture - an eruption. If the flow of water at depth is difficult, the level of the boiling zone will drop until the system is emptied. The steam will rise and leave the channel, and the ejected water will partially fall down, forming a column of cooled water that does not allow the hot water entering at depth to boil. The system will return to its initial state. Other models of geyser functioning are known: mixing of cold and hot waters with variable flow rates or a chamber model that takes into account the special shape of the supply channel. According to some researchers, each geyser has an individual mechanism of activity, due to the complex structure of the underground canal system and the multiplicity of water flows feeding the geysers.

Geysers are found in many countries. Tall, powerful geysers are known in Iceland, Canada, the USA, China, Japan, New Zealand and Russia (discovered in Kamchatka in the Valley of Geysers in 1941). The mass of water ejected during one eruption is greatest in Kamchatka geysers (for example, Grotto, Velikan, Maly). In total, there are about 100 geysers in Kamchatka, of which about 20 are large. In the USA, in Yellowstone National Park, there is the highest modern geyser - Steamboat, or Steamboat (the maximum height of its steam-water fountain is 90-120 m; the last major eruptions were in 1989, 1990, 1991, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2005); other tall geysers are Giant and Old Faithful. In the past, the highest and most powerful geyser on Earth was Waimangu (North Island, New Zealand), which acted irregularly with a period of 5 to 30 hours in 1899-1904, throwing out a stream of water to a height of up to 180 m (about 800 tons of water) with each eruption ), while individual splashes reached a height of 450 m. Another highest geyser of the past is Excelsior (Yellowstone National Park); in the 1880s it erupted with a wide water front up to a height of 90 m; its last activity was noted in 1985.

Lit.: Ustinova T.I. Kamchatka geysers. M., 1955; Droznin V. A. Physical model of the volcanic process. M., 1980; Rinehart 3. S. Geysers and geothermal energy. N.Y., 1980; Bryan T. S. The geysers of Yellowstone. 3rd ed. Niwot, 1995.

Geysers, hot springs and mineral springs are the last echoes of menacing volcanic activity.

The fountain flows for a while, then the water disappears, the clouds of steam dissipate, and a state of rest sets in.

Some geysers emit water very low or only spray it. There are hot springs that look like puddles in which the water boils with bubbles. Usually around the geyser there is a pool, or a shallow crater, the diameter of which reaches several meters. The edges of such a pool and the adjacent area are covered with deposits of silica contained in boiling water. These deposits are called geyserite. Near some geysers, cones of geyserite form from a few centimeters to several meters in height.

Immediately after the geyser erupts, the pool is cleared of water, and at the bottom you can see a channel (vent) filled with water, going deep underground.

Before the eruption begins, the water rises, slowly fills the pool, boils, splashes out, then with an explosion a fountain of boiling water flies high.

About 20 large geysers are known here, not counting small ones that splash out water only a few centimeters. Near some of them the soil is warm, and sometimes even hot.

Geyser eruption. Photo: Geoffrey Plauche

Geyser in section. Dashes indicate water, circles indicate gases.

The eruption of the "Great Geyser" is very beautiful. It is repeated every 20-30 hours and lasts 2.5-3 hours. The “Big Geyser” gushes to a height of up to 30 m.

Where does this heat come from?

The eruption of geysers occurs in different ways, depending on the size of the underground chambers, on the shape of the channels and the location of the cracks through which heat flows from the depths of the subsoil, on the amount and speed of groundwater inflow. It is known from physics that the boiling point of water at a pressure of 1 atmosphere at sea level is 100°. If the pressure increases, the boiling point increases,

If the geyser channel is wide and has a more or less regular shape, the water, moving (circulating), mixes, boils and splashes out to the surface in the form of a hot spring. If the channel is tortuous and narrow, the water cannot mix and heats up unevenly. Due to pressure from above the column of water below, the water becomes superheated and does not turn into steam. Steam is released in separate bubbles. Accumulating below, compressed steam tends to expand, puts pressure on the upper layer of water in the canal and raises it so much that it splashes onto the surface of the Earth in small fountains - harbingers of an eruption. The sloshing of water reduces the weight of the water column in the channel; Consequently, the pressure at depth decreases and superheated water, being above the boiling point, instantly turns into steam. The steam pressure from below is so great that it pushes water out of the channel in the form of huge fountains of boiling water and clouds of steam.

In regions of intense modern or recently completed volcanic activity, there are often sources that, under high steam pressure, periodically emit fountains of hot water and steam directly onto the Earth's surface. These are the so-called geysers. There are also hot springs, characterized by the slow flow of water from cracks in the earth's crust.

Iceland is rich in hot springs and geysers, where there are about 700 of them. The name “geyser” comes from the Icelandic word “to gush, to gush.” On the territory of Russia, there are geysers in Kamchatka; the Valley of Geysers is especially popular. These phenomena are also known in North and South America, Japan, New Zealand, and China. The appearance of geysers is varied. They can look like small truncated cones with steep slopes, like low gentle domes, like small bowl-shaped ditches, like irregularly shaped pits, etc. In their walls or bottom there are outlet openings of slot-like or tubular channels.

The functioning of geysers is characterized by the presence of periods of rest, filling the basin with water, gushing out a mixture of steam and water, completing the release of steam and again transitioning to the resting stage. Geysers are divided into two groups: regular and irregular. For those sources that belong to the first group, the duration of the cycle and its individual periods is relatively constant, for irregular geysers it is variable. For different geysers, stages can last minutes, tens of minutes, and the duration of periods of rest can range from several minutes to several days. The activity of geysers does not last long, which is associated with several factors, in particular, a decrease in the flow of groundwater near the canals, a decrease in heat flow, etc.

Geysers gush, spewing water to great heights. For example, the Giant geyser in Kamchatka throws out a stream of water with a diameter of 3 m and a height of up to 50 m every 5-6 hours. And in North America, the Old Faithful geyser raises a water column to a height of 80 m every hour.

The water ejected by geysers onto the earth's surface is clean, slightly mineralized, with a high content of silica. A rock such as geyserite, close in structure to opal, is formed at the exit of the geyser channel precisely from silica. The chemical composition of water is sodium chloride or sodium chloride-bicarbonate. The water emitted by geysers is of atmospheric origin, mixed with magma moisture condensate.

The hypothesis described below about the mechanism of geyser formation is generally accepted. Water that has seeped into the channel from rock layers in its lower sections heats up and boils with the formation of steam, which throws the water out.

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