UK Parliament. Parliament of Great Britain Name of Parliament in England

The British Parliament is one of the oldest estates-representative bodies in the world. It was founded in 1265 and, with minor changes, still exists today. The English Parliament consists of two houses: the Commons and the Lords. The first, although it is called the lower one, still plays a much larger, if not decisive, role in the British Parliament.

"Foremother" of the world's representative bodies

This is what the British Parliament is called. It has been functioning for almost 800 years! Just think about it! In world history, not many states can boast of such a long existence. During this time, the country's parliament remained without any significant changes and, both in 1265 and today, consists of the lower and upper houses, as well as the monarch. The history of the country is inextricably linked with this government body, because it was he (the body) who decided it. Laws and regulations, important changes are all the activities of parliament. It can influence public opinion as well as government actions. For several centuries of its existence, the English Parliament has been the center of political life in the United Kingdom.

So is it bottom or not?

If you follow the process of political changes and the degree of influence of the chambers, it will not be difficult to come to the conclusion about the supremacy of the lower house. It is in this chamber that elections take place; applicants come to it only through the electoral system and do a tremendous amount of work to stay there for the longest time. Parliamentarians of the House of Commons are the main legislators of the state. They must always be on the pulse of domestic and foreign policy events in order to respond to various kinds of economic, political and social messages as quickly as possible. As a result, the primacy of this part of parliament can be traced even with a superficial acquaintance with the functions of the estate-representative body.

Formation of the House of Commons and suffrage

The House of Commons of Great Britain, having the principle of election, pursues one goal. As you know, the kingdom is a two-party system. And the entire political struggle for power takes place between two parties. As a result of elections, their representatives come to parliament. And then everything is simple: whose party has the majority will rule the roost. This system has already become traditional in Great Britain with its Whig and Tory parties, which today are called Liberals and Conservatives, respectively.

All citizens who have reached the age of 18, who live in the territory of the district, and who are included in the electoral registration lists, can take part in the elections. These lists are compiled annually before October 10. And on November 29, they are posted for public viewing for the purpose of checking them by the citizens themselves and possible adjustments.

It must be said that there is a system of elections by mail, as well as by proxy in cases of illness or absence from the district at the time of the election.

As in other countries, mentally ill citizens, foreigners serving sentences for serious and especially serious crimes, persons convicted of electoral dishonesty, under 18 years of age, as well as peers, with the exception of Irish ones, do not take part in elections.

Who can be elected to parliament?

The House of Commons is formed by citizens who meet the passive standards. All citizens who have reached the age of 21 are vested with this right, with the exception of:

Mentally ill;

Paid judges and magistrates;

Peers and peeresses, with the exception of Irish ones, since they do not have the right to be members of the English Parliament;

Civil servants (a civil servant wishing to take part in elections must first resign from his job and then nominate his candidacy);

Military personnel (an officer wishing to participate in elections must first resign, after which he can nominate his candidacy);

CEOs of public corporations (eg BBC);

Representatives of the clergy.

If a person does not meet the above requirements, he cannot participate in the elections. In cases where this was not discovered before the elections, the candidacy may be withdrawn during the elections and even after them. The vacated seat is then declared vacant and elections are held again. An elected member of the House of Commons is vested with all the powers provided for.

Duration of vesting of powers

Newly elected parliamentarians are vested with rights for a period of 5 years. However, the moments of dissolution and self-dissolution should be taken into account. Regarding the first, it can be proposed by the Prime Minister of Great Britain, and the monarch, in turn, does not even have, in fact, “written” circumstances to reject his proposal. The prime minister can be guided by various facts, most often this happens due to precedents within parliament. For example, after the first parliament that served its entire term was elected in 1992.

In some cases (which happens extremely rarely), the UK Parliament may declare itself to dissolve or extend its powers. Regarding the first, the last time this happened was more than 100 years ago - in 1911. And if we talk about the extension of powers, they took place during the First and Second World Wars.

Composition and regional formation

The House of Commons is formed of 659 members. This figure has not always been this way; it changes depending on the population growth in the counties and cities of the country. For example, over the past 70 years, the size of the lower house has increased by 10%.

If we consider the composition in a regional context, then the lion's share is made up of parliamentarians from England - 539 members, Scotland is represented by 61 seats, Wales - 41 and Northern Ireland - 18 seats.

The party composition is formed depending on the work done, as well as the oratory skills of nominees from districts and cities. It must be said that the struggle is quite fierce, no one wants to retreat, and most often the votes differ only slightly.

Speaker of the Lower House

The House of Commons is not just a collection of deputies united by a common goal. This body has a clear hierarchy and persons performing certain duties. There are few such positions, they include the speaker with his three deputies, the leader of the chamber, and a bailiff.

The Speaker is one of the members of the House and is elected by his colleagues with the personal approval of the monarch. Usually the most authoritative member of the ruling party is elected, although exceptions occur. He is elected once, but he remains in his position until he loses the election or leaves of his own free will. The speaker is assigned the functions of establishing the order of speech of deputies. It is he who has the sole right to conclude the debate. As a result, the importance and place of the Speaker for the Parliament of the lower house of Great Britain is inestimable. When exercising his powers, the Speaker wears a robe and a white wig. Interestingly, after the end of his term of office, he is given the title of baron, which makes him a member of the upper house.

Deputy Speakers, Leader, Clerk and Bailiff

The Speaker has three deputies. The former is also the Chairman of Ways and Means. His duty is to replace the Speaker when he is absent. In cases of his absence, powers are transferred to two other deputies. Three deputies are elected from among the deputies on the proposal of the leader of the chamber.

The leader is an equally important official of the chamber. This position is not elective. The leader is appointed by the Prime Minister of Great Britain; as a rule, the choice falls on the most influential and authoritative figure in the chamber.

The functions of the secretary are assigned to the clerk, who is assisted by 2 assistants. The main function of the clerk is to provide advice to the speaker, the opposition, and the government. As a result, he, along with the Speaker and Leader of the House, is one of the most important persons. Security in the lower house is a matter of national importance, for which the bailiff is responsible.

Meeting space

Historically, meetings of both chambers take place in the Green Room, which is the responsibility of the lower chamber; it is small in size and looks rather modest. There are benches on two opposite sides of the room. There is a passage in the middle between them. At the end of the room there is a place for the speaker's chair, in front of which there is a massive table - a place for the mace. Clerks sit at the table next to the speaker and give him advice. Deputies take places on the benches for a reason: deputies from the ruling party are seated on the right hand of the speaker, and the opposition is seated on the left.

There are red lines in front of the front rows of benches on each side - these are boundaries. They are located at a distance of two swords' length from each other. During debates, MPs are prohibited from crossing these lines. When crossing, it is believed that the speaker wants to attack his opponent. Front seats are tacitly reserved for government ministers and opposition leaders.

In crowded but not mad…

A distinctive feature of the lower house is the lack of seats. There are only 427 of them on the benches. Although it was said above that there are 659 deputies sitting in the chamber. Thus, more than 200 people are forced to be at the entrance. The working week lasts from Monday to Thursday, sometimes meetings are held on Fridays. In cases involving a threat to national security, deputies rest for only one day - on Sunday.

More recently, meetings were allowed to be held in another room of the palace - Westminster Hall. However, it does not address serious issues.

Committees

For the final edition and adoption of laws or bills by the House, various committees are created:

• Permanent. They are created at the beginning of the convening of the next parliament and are valid throughout the entire period of its powers. Its name does not at all mean that its composition is unchanged. Committees, like the House of Commons, use elections each time to create and consider new bills.
• Special. There are 14 select committees in the English Parliament. Their main responsibility is to monitor the activities of ministries. This system was created in 1979 and is regarded as the most important reform of the century, allowing for a qualitative improvement in the functioning of the government.
• Sessional. Some of the committees are created for a year, that is, for the session of parliament, which is why they got their name. These are mainly production committees, and they operate strictly within the sphere of activity of the House of Commons itself.

In addition to the three main types of committees, in some cases joint ones are established. They consist of representatives of both houses of parliament, since they affect the interests of both the commons and the lords.

Thus, the political system of the United Kingdom, developing over many centuries of its history, has come a long way. The most significant moment in its formation is the creation and evolution of the estate-representative body - the parliament. As a result of the well-coordinated system of work of its chambers, Great Britain today is one of the leading countries in the world economy and politics. The House of Commons plays a leading role in political transformations and socio-economic changes within the state.

Quite often, the United Kingdom of Great Britain - the most famous of the existing monarchies - is called "old England." And this makes some sense, because it was formed as a state quite a long time ago. And its parliament is one of the oldest in the world; legislative bodies in many other countries were formed in its image. So, the UK Parliament: structure, formation procedure, features, powers. What is one of the oldest legislative bodies in the world like?

Three branches of government in Great Britain

The United Kingdom is headed by a queen, as almost every modern person knows. Formally, she also manages the three main systems of the state: legislative, executive and judicial. In fact, these branches of government are represented by separate bodies and are not actually subordinate to the monarch, whose activities are limited to participation in ceremonial events.

The functions of the legislative body are carried out by the British bicameral Parliament, the executive body is carried out by the Prime Minister and his Cabinet. The third branch is represented by several courts dealing with cases of different areas of law.

A similar power structure exists in many modern states, but in Great Britain there is one peculiarity. De jure, the monarch may refuse to sign a law adopted by Parliament, or dissolve it altogether, dismiss or appoint a prime minister, or interfere in the affairs of the judicial system. In fact, this does not happen. In practice, the political leader of the country is the prime minister, and the other branches of government act independently of him.

History of Parliament

The UK legislature is one of the oldest in the world, although somewhat inferior to Iceland's. It was first formed in 1265, and 30 years later, in 1295, it was transformed into a bicameral one. Before this, there was such an institution as the royal council, which seriously limited the power of the monarchy during the reign of John the Landless, who signed the famous Magna Carta. But the main difference between Parliament and this body was in the order of its formation - it became elected.

Over the past centuries, there have been no fundamental changes in the structure and functions of this institution. After the unification of England and Scotland, a single Parliament of Great Britain was formed, and later Ireland joined them. Some reforms were carried out, mainly concerning the election of members and the manner in which their power was transferred. It is precisely this system that is used to form the UK Parliament to this day.

By the way, it is in Parliament that all documents and adopted acts are stored starting from the 15th century. There is also the original Bill of Rights, which established the limitation of royal power and led to the modern system of constitutional monarchy.

Structure

As already mentioned, the UK Parliament consists of two parts or chambers. In another way it can be called bicameral. Legislative bodies work in the same way in many countries of the world, including the USA, Russia, Germany, etc.

The so-called lower part is called the House of Commons, and the upper part is called the Lords. Each of them has a chairman-speaker, who is elected from among the most respected members. The candidacy must be agreed upon by the leaders of all parties represented in Parliament and approved by the monarch. According to the old tradition, the Speaker retains his position until he loses his mandate or resigns on his own initiative. After this, he receives the title of baron and a seat in the House of Lords.

The Speaker does not formally belong to any party, does not speak or take part in voting, except in certain cases. Its functions are to ensure interaction between Parliament and other government institutions, as well as resolving general organizational issues. In addition, he has three deputies - vice-speakers, who, in his absence, conduct meetings. They are also deprived of the right to vote and discuss bills, as well as belong to parties.

In the upper house, the Lord Speaker acts as the leader. This position was introduced about 10 years ago when reforms were introduced. As a result, the Lord Chancellor transferred some of his responsibilities to the Speaker, and he himself began to combine the powers of the Minister of Justice along with his position.

What is very interesting is that the British Parliament attaches a lot of importance to various procedures accompanying its work. However, they are not fixed in writing anywhere; moreover, they change slightly depending on the convocation and session. In general, the work of the organ is regulated only by unwritten rules and age-old customs.

Lower Chamber

The structure of the UK Parliament assumes that in this part there is an initial discussion of proposed bills, some amendments are made, after which voting takes place. Members of the House of Commons, as it is called, are elected to it and hold their seat for 5 years. Traditionally, the leader of the winning party becomes prime minister, although Parliament formally has nothing to do with forming the government. The Cabinet is formed from among the people elected to the House of Commons.

Members of Parliament belonging to the second largest party become the official opposition and form the shadow government. Its functions are to control the execution of decisions and the work of the main Cabinet of Ministers.

Also, the lower house of Parliament can be divided into various committees and entities designed to deal with issues in different sectors. They can be special, general or combined. There is also a committee of the whole House - a mode of operation when all members participate in the consideration of bills, usually of a financial nature. After approval at the bottom of Parliament, the bill moves to the top. It operates on completely different principles.

Upper house

It is interesting that at the present stage this part has much less powers than elected members of Parliament. Almost all recent reforms concerning its activities have been aimed at limiting the power of this body and increasing its legitimacy.

The fact is that the upper house of Parliament is not a directly elected body. The so-called lords spiritual and temporal (or peers) sit here. The composition includes the highest ranks of the clergy (there are 24 of them), as well as people who have received the right to participate in the legislative process by inheritance or for life. Thus, the formation of the secular part of the chamber takes place according to a rather complex system, including voting by all participants, as well as members of parties represented in Parliament. However, there is no numerical limit; currently 763 people are peers. Moreover, the transfer of this privilege from father to son, which used to be extremely common, is actually becoming a thing of the past - now this right is granted for life and cannot be inherited.

In terms of powers, the House of Lords has much less than the Commons. As a result of several recent reforms, the right of veto has been replaced by the ability to postpone the consideration of certain bills. However, some of the bills cannot be delayed for long periods. In addition, formally peers do not have the opportunity to oppose the policies of the current Cabinet and make significant amendments to financial bills. However, sometimes the House of Commons delegates this right to them.

Interrelation of branches of government

Initially, the Prime Minister of Great Britain, as well as the Cabinet he created, were accountable to Parliament. De facto, this is not happening now due to the majoritarian election system - according to it, the ruling party has a majority of votes in the House of Commons. In general, the legislature has fairly little control over the government. Nevertheless, the history of the 20th century knows three cases when the House of Commons expressed no confidence in the current government, which was represented by the Prime Minister of Great Britain.

However, the legislative and executive powers are still connected. According to tradition, the Prime Minister, and then his Cabinet, is assembled from representatives of the lower house of Parliament. However, this is not a mandatory condition at all, which has nevertheless been observed for a very long time.

In general, the branches of government in the UK are separated rather than interconnected, which is what modern international law requires. Perhaps this is where a large part of the stability and resilience of the United Kingdom as a state lies.

Legislative function

The powers of the UK Parliament primarily relate to lawmaking. As a rule, during the regular session, meeting participants consider bills proposed by their colleagues or ministers. These bills can relate to various aspects of life, which is why the already mentioned formations, commissions and committees are necessary. But how is the whole process organized?

Lawmaking is the main function performed by the entire structure of the UK Parliament. This process begins with the proposal of a bill, as a rule, this is done by the king's ministers, but any member of both the lower and upper houses has the right to do so.

Next, there are several stages of discussion, during which it may be necessary to adjust and supplement the document. During the process, the bill may be rejected, but if this does not happen, it is sent to committee. He analyzes the bill article by article and proposes further amendments. After approval in the third reading, the bill is sent to the House of Lords, where adjustments can also be made to it. If they are not there, then the bill is submitted to the monarch for approval, but if one part of Parliament does not agree with the amendments of the other, then there can be no talk of adoption. In some cases, the House of Commons may approve a bill without the approval of the Lords. But this is rather an exception to the rule.

The last stage is approval or rejection by the sovereign. In theory, the monarch can veto this or that bill, but in practice this has not happened for a long time. The last case was in 1708. Lawmaking is therefore a complex process requiring consideration and approval from all three parts of Parliament. But its functions do not end there.

Judicial powers

The British Parliament has another rather interesting feature. In some cases, he performs judicial functions that came to him from the time of the ancient custom of filing petitions for the correction of injustice. This primarily concerns the House of Lords. For example, until 1948, it was Parliament that considered cases of high treason among peers. After 2005, this function was removed from the House of Lords. However, the entire Parliament can initiate another judicial procedure - begin impeachment proceedings. Although the last attempt was made centuries ago, some are hoping to renew the tradition.

Formation order

Elections to Parliament are possible only if we are talking about the House of Commons. Moreover, citizens who do not belong to any parties can be elected. But there are also limitations. For example, a person under 21 years of age, a foreigner, a citizen serving a sentence for high treason, a member of the House of Lords, civil servants and military personnel, persons suffering from mental illness and some other categories cannot be elected to the UK Parliament.

Elections can be either general or intermediate, related to the vacancy of one of the seats. The number of deputies is determined by the number of electoral districts; in 2010 there were 659 of them. The majority system of relative majority is in force, that is, the candidate who receives the maximum number of votes, compared to his competitors, wins.

The powers of the UK Parliament last 5 years after elections or until dissolution, which is extremely rare. However, sometimes the chamber can make such a decision on its own or, on the contrary, extend the period of its work, which also happens infrequently. In general, the formation of Parliament has proceeded for many years without serious problems.

Location

The British Parliament has been housed in the same building for many centuries - the Palace of Westminster, located on the north bank of the Thames. It was originally a royal residence, but in 1530 the monarch moved it to Whitehall, so that legislators received the entire building for their use. Its oldest parts were built back in the 11th century, but much of it was not preserved due to the fire of 1834. So the building was generally built and reconstructed in the 19th century. Its calling card, as well as the symbol of London, was the clock tower called Big Ben, which tourists are sure to photograph.

It is quite difficult to get inside the Palace of Westminster as a tourist. During Parliament's work, the number of visitors is strictly limited; not all citizens can come without prior approval. The exception is the summer holidays, when you can get to the palace with an organized group.

Traditions

Despite the fact that structures similar to the English legislative bodies exist in most modern states, the British one is also interesting for its ceremonies and etiquette.

For example, before each meeting of the lower house there is a general prayer. Participants face the wall; they cannot kneel, as the tradition dates back to the days when swords were carried in Parliament. On days when one of the members dies, additional prayer is also held.

Another feature is the prohibition of wearing medals and other signs of the monarch’s favor during meetings. In addition, during the speech and discussion, you can only express your thoughts extremely correctly, using special expressions. Otherwise, the speaker may ask the speaker to leave the room.

In the process of passing a new law, bills are exchanged between the chambers. Phrases in Norman French are used. Another interesting fact is that the Lord Chancellor (now Speaker) of the Upper House sits on a sack of wool. This tradition dates back to the time when England was the main supplier of this product to Europe. Now the bag is filled with wool produced not only on the islands, but also in other countries of the Commonwealth - this symbolizes their unity.

The United Kingdom of Great Britain is a surprisingly conservative country. Traditions and signs reign here, but at the same time the country manages to keep up with the times and remain an island of relative calm and stability in the chaos of the world.

Structure and formation of parliament.
The British Parliament is a classic example of the so-called “Westminster model” (in fact, he gave this model its name) and consists of two chambers - the House of Commons and the House of Lords, as well as the monarch, who is an integral part of it.

The House of Commons is elected for a term of five years on the basis of a majority system with 659 members to date. The President of the House of Commons is called the Speaker. He is elected by the Chamber from among its members based on agreement between the ruling and opposition parties. The candidacy of the speaker is approved by the monarch, but this is largely a symbolic act. The Speaker is formally elected for the term of office of the House, but if he remains a deputy after new parliamentary elections, then the deputies traditionally re-elect the Speaker for a new term. The Speaker has the authority to both represent the House of Commons externally (provides interaction between the House of Commons and the monarch, the House of Lords, and the Government) and to direct the work of the House. In the latter area, he has particularly significant powers, in particular, he determines the type of bill (financial or ordinary), which affects the procedure for its passage, the method of voting, the presence of grounds for terminating debate, appoints chairmen of standing committees, etc. The Speaker of the House of Commons does not participates in debates. He is obliged to behave politically impartially. He is not even given the right to vote and participate in debates, but if the votes of deputies are equal, he is obliged to vote, and then his vote becomes decisive.

Other responsible officials of the House of Commons are the Deputy Speakers (one of them is the first), the Leader of the House of Commons (in fact, the representative of the Government in the House, but at the same time a member of the House) and the Clerk - a non-parliamentarian official appointed by the monarch (in fact - Chamber) without term limits. The Clerk is in charge of the House staff and is the Speaker's adviser on matters of procedure and parliamentary privileges. Order in the House of Commons is maintained by the bailiff. A collegial governing body is not created in the Chamber. At the same time, a House of Commons Committee is created consisting of the Speaker, the Leader of the House (he represents the ruling party), a member of the House appointed by the Leader of the Opposition, and three members of the House who are not ministers. The House of Commons Committee appoints the staff of the House services, sets their salaries, and supervises the work of employees.

It is possible to create permanent and temporary committees in the House of Commons. TO standing committees include those created by the Chamber of specialized (in sectors and management functions, for example, industry and trade, transport; mainly having control functions regarding the relevant areas of activity of the government and ministries) and non-specialized (designated by the letters A, B, C, etc. - total eight; mainly have the functions of working with bills without their sectoral link). Permanent ones can also include sessional committees, formally created at the beginning of each session of the Chamber for the period until its completion to resolve issues of organizing work (commissions on Rules, privileges, procedure and a number of others), but recreated for each new session in the same form, therefore they are really not temporary, but permanent.

Temporary committees are created to address individual issues. Among them are joint committees of both houses of parliament, formed from their representatives and created to consider non-political issues and some bills. Provisional committees can also be called committees of the whole House, which represent the House of Commons as a whole. This form of work of the House of Commons is used when discussing significant (mainly financial and constitutionally significant) bills to simplify the traditional procedure. The meeting is chaired not by the speaker, but by a special temporary chairman.

The House of Lords currently has four types of members. Two of them occupy a seat in the House of Lords by ex officio: the Lords Spiritual (the highest hierarchs of the Church of England) and the Lords Judicial (there are 12 of them, they are appointed to perform the judicial functions of the House). There is a category of hereditary lords (peers) - - recently their number has been reduced by law, as well as life lords (peers), appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the Prime Minister for services to Great Britain. Under legislation passed by the House of Commons in 2000, the House of Lords will soon have no hereditary peers at all.

So, the Episcopacy Act 1878 is now in force, establishing a list of 26 Lords Spiritual - members of the House of Lords ex officio (ex officio). The reform of the House of Lords, carried out by the 1999 Act of the same name, excluded hereditary lords from members of the upper house of the Westminster Parliament. For the transition period, 92 of the 758 (as of November 1, 1999) hereditary lords were retained in the chamber for life. These include: the Earl Marshal (chief master of ceremonies and chairman of the British Chamber of Heraldry) and the Lord Chief Chamberlain ex officio and 90 elected hereditary lords. Of the latter, 75 were elected by four parliamentary groups in proportion to their representation: 42 Conservatives, 28 Independent Democrats, three Lib Dems and two Labour. The remaining 15 are chosen by the entire House to serve as the Deputy Speaker and other officials of the House. Of these, nine are Conservatives and two each are representatives of other parliamentary groups: Independents, Liberal Democrats and Labor. Now all hereditary lords, with the exception of those remaining in the House of Lords, have the right to stand for election, including for the House of Commons.

The House of Lords is headed by the Lord Chancellor, who is part of the government and appointed by the monarch on the proposal of the Prime Minister for a period of five years. He has less ability to make individual decisions on organizing the work of the Chamber than the speaker. His powers lie rather in the sphere of the judiciary: the Lord Chancellor is the government's chief adviser on justice issues, heads the judiciary, is the chairman of the highest judicial bodies, and plays an important role in the appointment of judges. The Lord Chancellor has two deputies. However, in 2003 the Government decided to abolish the existing position of Lord Chancellor in the near future and legislate for the establishment of a new institution to carry out the functions currently performed by the Lord Chancellor. In addition, the newly appointed Lord Chancellor in 2003 made a statement that, as a judge, he would not sit in the House of Lords, nor would he serve as Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs, and thus would cease to combine the positions of judge and minister. The new Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs will no longer preside over the upper house of Parliament.

The position of leader of the chamber is provided. This is the representative of the party that wins the election to the House of Commons, even if it has a minority in the House of Lords. He is vested with separate organizational powers. In the House of Lords, as in the House of Commons, the position of clerk is provided with approximately the same status as in the House of Commons. The House of Lords creates committees on specific issues, for example the Committee on Science and Technology, the Committee on European Union Affairs and others. Such committees can act as permanent or temporary. It is possible for both chambers to form joint committees to consider issues under the jurisdiction of both chambers.

Factions can be created in both Chambers. However, they have no real weight in the House of Lords. House of Commons factions are characterized by the presence of “whips” - persons appointed by the party leadership who ensure, as already noted, the voting and behavior of faction members in the interests of the party.

Powers of Parliament.
The main power is legislation. Parliament's powers to pass laws are virtually unlimited. He can pass legislation on almost any issue, but in recent years he has preferred to delegate authority in this area to the government. The ability of parliament to resolve by law any essentially issue is confirmed by the fact that bills (bills) adopted in parliament can be public (designed to regulate relations of general interest) and private (affect the interests of certain individuals, groups of individuals or territories). Sometimes mixed bills are distinguished that combine these characteristics. Note that laws in the UK can not only regulate social relations themselves, but also determine the direction of government policy and resolve specific issues.

Bills can be introduced in either House of Parliament, except for Finance Bills, which can only be introduced in the House of Commons. In fact, the review always begins in the House of Commons. There, bills are adopted, as a rule, in three readings. The law is passed by a majority vote and then sent to the House of Lords, which may or may not agree with the House of Commons. In case of disagreement, a compromise version of the law can be developed and adopted (using the “shuttle” method). If agreement cannot be reached in this way, then the entry into force of the law is postponed for a year. After a year, the House of Commons can pass the law in the same wording, and it will come into force. The entry into force of laws on financial matters is delayed by only one month, and their re-enactment is not required. If both houses pass a bill (or the House of Commons overrides the House of Lords' opposition to it), it is sent to the monarch and, once signed and published, becomes legally binding.

In recent years, the delegation of legislative powers to the government (Cabinet of Ministers) has developed.

The chambers also have control powers. The absolute majority are concentrated in the House of Commons. The government is controlled by her. Control is exercised, firstly, through oral and written questions from deputies, which must be answered, secondly, through specialized or temporary specially created committees, thirdly, by expressing (by making a decision by the Chamber) regret about government policies - This is a softer formula than an expression of mistrust. In addition, control can be carried out with the help of special officials: the parliamentary Commissioner for Administration (in fact, this is an ombudsman, but he accepts complaints for consideration not from citizens, but through the House of Commons) and the Auditor General. The highest manifestation of control powers is the issuance of no confidence (resolution of censure) or denial of trust to the government. The control powers of the House of Lords are exercised in the form of: a) questions to government ministers; b) creating temporary committees to study relevant problems.

The House of Lords also has judicial powers and is the highest judicial body in the country.

Parliamentary procedure.
The procedure of the British Parliament has a number of features. Firstly, there are no regulations for the work of chambers as single written acts. The working order is determined mainly by customs and parliamentary traditions. Secondly, the quorum is very low - 40 people for the House of Commons and three people for the House of Lords. Thirdly, voting is, as a rule, open, and methods such as division are used (parliamentarians leave through different doors depending on the decision they support) and acclamation (the decision is made depending on the volume of shouts from supporters of one or another option). Fourthly, a system for limiting debate has been developed. In order to ensure the effectiveness of the legislative process in parliament, various methods of limiting debate are used ("guillotine", "kangaroo", simply stopping debate at the request of 100 parliamentarians and a number of others). Finally, the entire procedure of the House of Commons, even the peculiar seating arrangement of parliamentarians (opposite each other), reflects the presence of the ruling (government) and opposition parties and is built around such a balance of forces.

Dissolution of the House of Commons.
Formally, the monarch has virtually unlimited power to dissolve the House of Commons. However, according to custom, it can only be implemented at the initiative of the Prime Minister and only as an alternative to the resignation of the government after expressing no confidence or denial of confidence in it.

Parliamentarian status.
In relation to the House of Commons, it is characterized primarily by a free mandate. However, when voting, a deputy is usually bound by his factional affiliation. A deputy works on a permanent basis and receives remuneration for his work. A deputy mandate is incompatible with entrepreneurial activity, but is compatible with holding key positions in the executive branch. The British Parliament is characterized by extremely limited parliamentary immunity. It is that a parliamentarian cannot be held accountable for speaking in parliament (but not elsewhere). In other cases, the basis for starting criminal procedural procedures is the consent of the speaker.

Monarch

Great Britain is a parliamentary monarchy.

The position of the monarch (king or queen) in the system of power is determined by the formula “reigns, but does not rule.” Its task is to symbolize the stability of state institutions. At the same time, it is formally endowed with quite large capabilities - both by fixed statutes (there are not very many of them), so; and considered as the inherent powers of the monarch (prerogatives exist insofar as they are not limited by statutes). Prerogatives concern the personal status of the monarch (personal prerogatives) and his place in the system of power (political prerogatives).

Prerogatives of the Monarch.
The political prerogatives of the monarch are formally very great. He, in particular, appoints the Prime Minister, leads the Armed Forces, appoints judges, grants pardons, has the right to convene and dissolve parliament, signs laws, is the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, has the right to declare war and make peace, conclude international treaties, appoint diplomatic representatives and etc. However, the monarch does not exercise powers independently. The government is appointed by him based on the results of parliamentary elections, and all other actions in which power is manifested are carried out subject to the countersignature of the Prime Minister and on the initiative of the government (Cabinet). The monarch, however, has some “hidden” powers that he can exercise himself, depending, of course, on the political situation. Thus, several times, in the absence of a clearly defined majority in parliament as a result of parliamentary elections, the government was formed on the basis of the choice made by the monarch. The monarch also retains the right of absolute veto on laws, but since the beginning of the 18th century, as already mentioned, it has practically not been used.

Personal prerogatives consist, firstly, in the presence of attributes of power (throne, power, scepter, title, mantle), secondly, in the right to the royal court and civil list (monetary allowance), thirdly, in the immunity of the monarch - the principle his irresponsibility (“a monarch cannot do wrong”). The institution of countersignature serves precisely to ensure immunity. At the intersection of personal and political prerogatives are the following elements of the monarch's status: he heads the British Commonwealth - an association of former British colonies, some of which, such as Australia, recognize the monarch as head of state; in addition, he is the head of the Church of England.

Succession to the throne.
The Act of Succession of 1701 established the Castilian system of succession to the throne in Great Britain. In accordance with it, the succession to the throne is carried out by the eldest son, and in the absence of a son, by the eldest daughter. The monarch himself can appoint another heir. The heir to the monarch acquires the title "Prince of Wales". The English monarch must be a Protestant by religion and cannot be married to a Catholic or a divorcee.

Privy Council.
The Privy Council is a specific body, directly related both organizationally and historically to the institutions of the monarchy. The Privy Council includes ministers, judges of the Court of Appeal, archbishops of the Church of England, the Speaker of the House of Commons, British ambassadors to foreign countries and a number of senior civil servants - about 400 people in total. The Privy Council has the status of an advisory body to the monarch. Many decisions of the monarch are traditionally formalized as acts adopted “in Council”). Such acts are adopted in the form of proclamations (for example, the convocation and dissolution of parliament, the declaration of war and peace and other significant issues) or in the form of orders. However, this does not remove the requirement for countersignature of acts of the monarch. The Privy Council can create subdivisions for specific areas of activity, the only actually functioning of which is the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.

Government.

The UK executive system.
The executive power of Great Britain is exercised by the Government, which consists of the heads of ministries and other departments, ministers of state (deputy ministers who are professionals in the relevant field of management and retain their powers regardless of the change of ministers and which party forms the government), parliamentary secretaries (deputy ministers for relations with parliament), a number of other officials.

The government is headed by the prime minister. His powers arise from political traditions and customs, in particular they cover certain powers that, from a formal point of view, belong to the prerogatives of the monarch. The Prime Minister forms the government and directs its activities, monitors the implementation of government decisions by ministries and departments. Officially, he holds the position of First Lord of the Treasury. Thanks to his set of powers, he plays a key role.

The government as a whole, due to its large number, does not actually meet as a single collegial body. Therefore, a cabinet management system developed. The Cabinet represents a group of ministers appointed by the Prime Minister, which makes collective decisions on the most important issues. Usually it is about 20-30 people. The Cabinet speaks on behalf of the government as a whole. Within the Cabinet, an even narrower board is created - the so-called internal cabinet, which includes a group of the prime minister’s closest associates from among the members of the Cabinet. The internal Cabinet does not have any formal legal status. Other boards may be created within the Cabinet of Ministers: to consider individual issues, for example on defense, foreign policy, economic policy and planning, etc. The decision to create such boards (committees) is made by the Prime Minister.

Formation and resignation of the government.
The leader of the party that wins the election to the House of Commons is appointed Prime Minister. Formally, the appointment is made by the monarch. After this, the prime minister forms a government mainly from parliamentarians. The Cabinet in general can only include members of Parliament, mainly the House of Commons, but also the House of Lords (for example, the Lord Chancellor). At the same time, state ministers, as professional deputy ministers, must ensure stability of government. The government resigns if the House of Commons refuses to trust it or expresses no confidence (the latter has not yet been applied in political practice). However, if the monarch, at the proposal of the Prime Minister, dissolves the House of Commons, then the government does not resign.

Functions and powers of government.
The main functions of the Cabinet of Ministers are to determine the policy course to be discussed in the UK and approved by Parliament, and to implement this course. The Cabinet of Ministers heads the executive branch: it coordinates the activities of ministries and departments. But in addition to the functions and powers of the executive branch itself, the Cabinet includes functions and powers that traditionally belong to the head of state, which the monarch does not actually exercise: for example, managing foreign policy and concluding treaties. They are carried out by the Prime Minister.

Although the government is formally controlled by the House of Commons, in fact, since the prime minister is usually the leader of the party with a majority in the House of Commons, a government with a relatively stable parliamentary majority can push decisions it needs through parliament.

The British Parliament consists of two houses: the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The House of Commons is elected for a term of five years by universal, equal elections by secret ballot on the basis of a majoritarian system of relative majority. Formation order and composition. Elections to the House of Commons can be general, that is, held simultaneously throughout the country, or intermediate, that is, held additionally in individual electoral districts in connection with a vacancy in the deputy mandate. The election campaign begins with the delivery of the writ of election to the "election officials," whose functions are performed in cities by mayors and in counties by sheriffs. The writ is served by the Lord Chancellor and specifies the time for the election to take place. "Election Officials" issue notices informing citizens living in their areas of jurisdiction about the location and time of elections. Citizens who have reached the age of 21 and have the right to vote enjoy passive suffrage. Exceptions include clergy of the Church of England, persons in public service and bankrupt persons. A person wishing to stand for election to the House of Commons must present a nomination document to the "Electoral Officer" and pay an election deposit. Typically, these funds are provided by political parties that nominate candidates in constituencies. Independent candidates pay the deposit amount themselves. If a candidate receives less than the legally established percentage of votes (5%), the deposit is not returned. On average, about 20% of the total amount of election deposits is not returned. Once all registration formalities are completed, the candidate begins the election campaign in the constituency. Typically, 2-3 candidates run in an electoral district, and the one who receives more votes compared to other candidates is considered elected. The number of elected members of the House of Commons corresponds to the number of electoral districts (in 1997 - 659). When determining the composition of the parliamentary corps of the House of Commons, two main factors should be kept in mind: a) the party affiliation of the deputies; b) regional representation. Following the results of the 1997 general elections, political parties received the following representation in the House of Commons: Labor Party - 419 parliamentary seats; Conservative Party - 165 parliamentary seats; Liberal Democrats Party - 46 parliamentary seats; regional parties - 29 deputy mandates. Regional representation is as follows: England is represented by 539 MPs; Scotland - 61 MPs; Wales - 41 MPs; Northern Ireland - 18 deputies. Speaker of the House of Commons. The Speaker of the House of Commons is an officer elected by the House from among its members. Historically, the Speaker held great authority and provided a link between the communities and the monarch. The candidacy of the Speaker is agreed upon by the leaders of the political parties represented in the House of Commons after lengthy consultations with all deputies of the faction. In accordance with tradition, the candidacy of the Speaker must be approved by the monarch, with whom this issue is previously discussed. The Speaker is elected by the new House of Commons, and if he retains his seat as a deputy after new parliamentary elections, then the deputies traditionally re-elect the Speaker for a new term. Within the scope of his powers, the Speaker: n ensures interaction between the House of Commons and the monarch, the House of Commons and the House of Lords; n manages the work of the House of Commons and ensures equal rights to participation in this work of deputies, in particular those constituting a minority of the House. For example, the Speaker may oppose the application of a "cless" rule on the grounds that it violates minority rights or the rules of procedure of the House of Commons; n provides advice and clarification on the rules of procedure of the House of Commons; n has disciplinary powers against troublemakers in the House; n confirms the correctness of the procedure for overcoming a veto of the House of Lords; n certifies the financial nature of a bill being considered by the House of Commons. The Speaker of the House of Commons does not participate in debates. He cannot belong to any of the political parties represented in the House. This is, as a rule, the most respected and longest-serving member of the House of Commons. Its independence is ensured not only by its supra-party position in the Chamber, but also by the fact that salaries, and subsequently pensions, are paid on the basis of legislation that is not subject to the conjuncture that develops during the annual adoption of the state budget. The Speaker is assisted in his work by three deputies and a clerk - an official who simultaneously serves as the secretary of the House and advisor to the Speaker on issues of procedure and parliamentary privileges. The issues of maintaining order and ensuring security in the House of Commons are entrusted to the bailiff. Committees of the House of Commons: 1) Committees of the whole House represent the full House of Commons, the meeting of which is not conducted under the leadership of the Speaker, as usual, but is headed by an elected chairman. This form of work of the House of Commons is used, as a rule, when making decisions of constitutional importance. For example, when the European Communities Act 1972 was adopted, 2) Standing committees are formed by a Select Committee of 16-50 MPs to consider specific bills. Most standing committees are not specialized, but some are specific. For example, committees on EU legislation, committees on finance bills, committees considering bills and other matters relating to Scotland and Wales, etc. The number of standing committees is not limited by legislation or the rules of the House of Commons, which may decide to create a standing committee for the consideration of any public bill. 3) Selected committees are formed from among deputies after consultation with the leaders of party factions and carry out the functions delegated to them by the House of Commons. Selected committees are of four types: a) committees that consider public bills or carry out expertise on the most important issues that form the subject of future legislation; b) committees considering private bills; c) sessional committees created at the beginning of each session of the House to consider certain issues or perform functions of a permanent nature. For example, Selection Committee, Regulations Committee, Privileges Committee, Procedure Committee, European Legislation Committee; Committee on Public Reporting, d) committees for monitoring the activities of ministries. They were first created in 1979 to monitor government bodies. The committees (14 in total) work in close cooperation with the ministries. The areas of their activities correspond to the functions of the ministries. For example, the Treasury Committee, the Public Accounts Committee, etc. 4) Joint committees of both houses of Parliament, formed from their representatives and created to consider non-political issues and certain types of legislation, such as consolidated bills. The House of Lords is the second chamber of Parliament, which traces its origins to the "Great Council" that existed during the Norman period of English history. The "Grand Council" included the largest landowners who served the king and were called "barons". Over time, the "Grand Council" underwent various changes, and on its basis the House of Lords was created, the members of which began to be called "peers" and transfer their title and place in the House by inheritance. Currently, the House of Lords has four types of membership: 1) Lords Spiritual: Archbishops of York and Canterbury and bishops of the Church of England (26); 2) Lords Lawyers (12) (Lords Spiritual and Lords Lawyers are not peers.); 3) hereditary peers: dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts and barons (their exact number varies for natural reasons. In general, hereditary peers make up more than 60% of the total number of members of the House of Lords); 4) life peers (about 36% of members of the House of Lords). The Life Peerage was created by the Life Peerage Act 1958. Under this Act, persons of great service to the Crown are given the title of Baron or Baroness and a life seat in the House of Lords. Among the life peers, more than 50% are former members of the House of Commons, the rest are outstanding literary and artistic figures, retired representatives of industrial and financial business, diplomats and retired trade union leaders with outstanding services to the state. The title is bestowed by the monarch on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. Despite such a large composition, a smaller part of it takes an active part in the work of the House of Lords, mainly life peers and law lords. The quorum is only 3 people. The House of Lords is headed by the Lord Chancellor, who is part of the Cabinet and appointed by the monarch on the proposal of the Prime Minister for a period of five years. Since the Lord Chancellor is not elected by the House, but rather appointed by the monarch, he does not have powers similar to those of the Speaker of the House of Commons. The Lord Chancellor has no disciplinary or any other rights to organize or control debates taking place in the House of Lords. These powers are exercised by the House independently on the basis of the privileges of its members and under the leadership of the Leader of the House, who becomes the leader of its largest party faction. The Lord Chancellor is not just a nominal figure; on the contrary, he carries out the most important functions in various areas of state life. The Lord Chancellor: a) has the right to debate and speak on behalf of the Government when the House of Lords sits as a Committee of the Whole House; b) evaluates in a preliminary manner requests (appeals) of peers sent to the Committee on Privileges; c) is the chief adviser to the Government on issues of justice and the application of the constitution; d) heads the judiciary, presiding over the House of Lords, which sits as the Supreme Court of Appeal, and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council under the monarch; e) ex officio is the President of the Court of Appeal and the President of the Chancery Division of the High Court; f) plays a decisive role in the appointment of judges, as well as in the activities of commissions for reform of the legal system of Great Britain; g) issues orders to convene a session of the House of Lords and to hold parliamentary elections. In the House of Lords, the Lord Chancellor has two deputies, elected annually by the House at the beginning of the session. The House of Lords creates committees to consider various issues within its competence. The most important are the Committee on Science and Technology and the Committee on European Union Affairs.

United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland

1. The British Constitution: concept, composition and features.
2. Fundamentals of the constitutional status of a person in Great Britain.
3. Features of the British government.
4. UK Parliament.
5. Monarch.
6. Government.
7. UK judicial system.
8. Local government and government bodies.

1. The Constitution of Great Britain: concept, composition and features.

In Great Britain there is no single written constitutional act regulating those relations that are usually regulated by constitutions, namely: the foundations of the social system, the constitutional and legal status of the individual, the system, the procedure for forming and the powers of public authorities. However, there is a historically formed system of norms that collectively regulate these relations, and quite effectively. They are called, with some degree of convention, the Constitution of Great Britain, although these norms are contained in different sources of law. The British Constitution is unwritten not due to the fact that there are no constitutional norms recorded on paper, parchment, papyrus or other media (after all, statutes and precedents exist in written form), but because it is not clearly stated anywhere what the norms are be considered constitutional and which are not. However, there is a certain generally accepted set of sources of law, which together make up the British Constitution.

Firstly, these are statutes, i.e. laws. Among the statutes there are acts adopted quite a long time ago, but retaining their significance. These include the Magna Carta of 1215, the Bill of Rights of 1689, the Act of Succession to the Throne of 1701, etc. There are also fairly modern laws: “On Parliament” (1911 and 1949), “On Peers” (1958 and 1963), “On the House of Commons” (1978), “On the Representation of the People” (1867, 1918, 1949, 1969, 1974, 1983, 1985, 1989, 2000), other laws adopted in the field constitutional regulation. Regulation by statutes is characterized by the lack of codification and sometimes casuistry of the legal text.

Secondly, constitutional norms are found in judicial precedents related to the subject of constitutional law, i.e., rules recorded in court decisions that are binding on the courts (and since any case can go to court, then on everyone else) when considering similar cases . Typically these are decisions of the High Court, Court of Appeal and House of Lords. The House of Lords may deviate from its precedents. Precedents, for example, have established that there is no right to levy taxes without the permission of parliament, that the monarch is not responsible, and that the acts of the monarch must be countersigned by the prime minister. Many of the precedents were later transformed into statutes.

Thirdly, these are constitutional customs, i.e., established norms of behavior that, due to traditions, are not questioned by the participants in these relations and other persons. They are based on general agreement that this is exactly how these relationships should be built (due to the rationality, antiquity, duration and regularity of the corresponding behavior). Therefore, in relation to Great Britain, they are often called constitutional agreements or conventional norms (from English, convention - here “agreement”, “contract”). Some experts even propose to distinguish unconstitutional customs from conventional norms. At the same time, it was not possible to develop any other criterion of distinction other than the nature of regulated social relations. Although this criterion makes it possible to determine the sectoral affiliation of a particular norm, it still does not give grounds to talk about its special character in the system of norms. Similarly, in other countries, the law regulating constitutional-legal (state-legal) relations is not necessarily a constitutional law.

If there is a direct conflict between constitutional custom and statute, then the statute applies. However, custom may interpret the content of the statute in a certain way. Some customs, like precedents, “flow” into statutes. For example, the custom that, in the event of a dispute between the Houses of Parliament when legislation was passed, the dispute was ultimately decided in favor of the House of Commons, is now enshrined in statute.

Constitutional custom, for example, establishes the rules according to which the monarch instructs the leader of the party that wins the election to the House of Commons to form a government; that the monarch in the exercise of his powers is bound by the will of the government; That the monarch is obliged to sign a bill passed by parliament, etc. It is already clear from the examples given that customs are in many ways of key importance for constitutional and legal regulation in Great Britain. Discussions arise from time to time regarding some customs. For example, the monarch has not vetoed laws passed in parliament for 300 years, which raises the question: can this be considered as a custom or simply as a fact that the monarch for the time being refrains from using his right? There is no definite answer to this question, but for now the discussion of this issue is rather theoretical in nature, and it can turn into a practical plane if a veto is suddenly imposed.

Fourthly, constitutional norms are contained in the works of authoritative jurists (doctrine). They are considered as an additional source of the Constitution. The scope of use of such works is to fill the gap on a scientific basis or eliminate conflicts between the above sources. In the field of constitutional law, these are primarily the works of V. Bedzhot, V. Blackstone and A.-V. Dicey.

The peculiarities of the composition and form of the British Constitution predetermined as its specificity that it is a “flexible” constitution, since there is no difference between the law constituting the Constitution and other laws, and the law, if it regulates the relevant relations, will have priority over precedent and custom. However, for both judicial precedents and customs, no special review procedure has been established. The historical features of the development of the British Constitution also predetermined the fact that in Great Britain the principle of separation of powers is not clearly expressed: the monarch is considered to be included in all branches of government, the House of Lords is both part of Parliament and a judicial body, members of the Government are simultaneously parliamentarians, etc. However, this does not in principle mean that there is subordination of one branch of government to another; in practice they are balanced.

2. Basics of the constitutional status of a person in Great Britain.

Features of consolidating the constitutional status of a person.
One of the features of the constitutional status of a person in Great Britain is that there is no systematic statement of his rights, freedoms and duties. They are established and regulated by statutes, precedents, and customs. Therefore, in the UK the main focus is on ensuring effective protection of rights and freedoms, primarily judicial protection.

The UK has specific legislation against discrimination on the basis of race and sex (Race Relations Act 1976, Sex Discrimination Act 1975, as amended 2002). They relate mainly to ensuring equality in the labor and social spheres and prescribe responsibility for manifestations of discrimination. Laws provide for restrictions on human rights in the interests of the security of society and the state, which are mainly related to the fight against terrorism (acts on emergency measures of 1973, 1978 and the Prevention of Terrorism Act of 1984, a number of new acts adopted in 2002-2003. ). These laws provide for specific criminal procedural guarantees of the rights of persons suspected of terrorism, as well as the possibility of limiting the right to privacy.

Citizenship .
The regulation of a person’s constitutional status in terms of attitude towards citizenship also has its own characteristics. There are several categories of persons, varying in degree of legal connection with the UK. Moreover, the difference between them in legal status lies in the unequal opportunities to exercise political rights (primarily electoral rights), as well as entry into the country. This is due to Britain's history as a colonial power.

So, there are the following categories of persons. Firstly, these are citizens of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (although Great Britain is a monarchy, the term “citizens” is used, not “subjects”), who have full rights and freedoms. To acquire such citizenship by naturalization, you must have resided in the UK for a certain period of time, be of good character and have a sufficiently good knowledge of English, or Gaelic (indigenous to Scotland), or Welsh (indigenous to Wales), the intention to reside permanently in the UK or to enter the workforce associated with permanent residence in the country. If you marry a British citizen, the requirements are somewhat simplified. Secondly, there is the citizenship of the British Dependencies. This status does not provide the right to freely enter the territory of Great Britain, but allows one to obtain citizenship of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in a simplified manner. Thirdly, there is citizenship of the British overseas territories. Fourthly, the category of persons under British protection is known. These mainly include citizens of former British colonies or territories that existed under the protectorate of Great Britain. This status is given to them, as a rule, in connection with emergency circumstances, by decision of the monarch (in reality - the Cabinet). Fifthly, citizens of the Irish Republic have a special status. In particular, they have active voting rights in Great Britain. Sixthly, there may be other foreign citizens and stateless persons in the UK.

Selected human rights, freedoms and responsibilities in the UK.
In British constitutional law there is no single official classification of the rights and freedoms of citizens, a legislative division into personal, political, economic, social and cultural rights and freedoms. The key among personal rights and freedoms is personal freedom - the right not to be subjected to arbitrary and groundless physical restrictions on freedom. The main document in this area is the Habeas Corpus Act of 1679, which is still in force to this day. Its main provisions provide for the right of judicial review of the grounds: arrest, presumption of innocence, prohibition on obtaining evidence of guilt through mental and physical pressure, etc. Personal rights also include confidentiality of correspondence and telephone conversations, protection from electronic means of control over personal life, freedom of conscience and religion, inviolability of the home, i.e. the inability to enter there without special permission issued by a judge on legal grounds.

Political rights and freedoms may include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly and association. The latter includes the right to form a political party. In Great Britain, the main struggle for representation in government is currently being waged by two political parties: the Conservative and the Labor. There are other parties, including quite large ones. There is no law regulating the activities of political parties in the UK; it is determined by various statutes, customs and precedents. However, a number of statutes secure the status of the main opposition party, which is called "the opposition to Her Majesty's Government." This party receives funds from the budget, and its leader can form and head the “shadow” Cabinet of Ministers and even receive salaries from the budget as its leader. The task of the “shadow” cabinet is to ensure continuity of governance in the event of a change of government and control over the government. In the UK, the right to organize trade unions is regulated in some detail (however, it does not apply to police officers, military personnel, and intelligence officers).

One of the most important political rights is the right to vote. The electoral legislation of Great Britain is characterized, firstly, by the establishment of a fairly low age limit for acquiring passive suffrage. It is used by citizens (British and Irish only) who are over 21 years of age. Secondly, in the UK a number of public officials are prohibited from standing for election. A necessary condition for nomination in this case is resignation from the corresponding post, i.e. they are not given the opportunity, unlike many other countries, to first be elected and then leave their post. There is also a specific moral qualification: bankrupt persons cannot be nominated as candidates for a particular post. Thirdly, the electoral deposit is actively used as a condition for registering as a candidate. If a candidate receives less than 5% of the vote, the deposit is not returned, although the deposit itself is relatively small. Citizens' voting rights also include the right to form a political party. It is no coincidence that the Law on Political Parties, Elections and Referendums was adopted in 2000. Thus, the regulation of all these interrelated rights is placed in one act. True, even earlier, in 1998, the Law on Registration of Political Parties was adopted. In the UK, in parliamentary elections and mainly in local government elections, the majority system is used, although when forming part of the Scottish Parliament and part of the Welsh Assembly, a proportional electoral system is used. The proportional system under the 1999 Act also applies to elections of members of the European Parliament, with the exception of Northern Ireland, where the single transferable vote system continues to be used.

Among socio-economic rights and freedoms, the most important right in Great Britain is, of course, the right to property. Such social rights as the right to equal pay for equal work, the right to rest, the right to social security, to education, to health and protection from environmental pollution, etc., have been consolidated.

3. Features of the British government.

Status of Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.
The UK includes England, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland, and a number of other territories. Historically, Great Britain developed as a union, hence its full name - the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The peculiarities of the modern government system are rooted precisely in this. The status of the territories that make up Great Britain varies. In recent years, there has been a tendency towards expanding their autonomy, which is called devolution. Decisions on this were made through referendums. The content of autonomy in these territorial entities is also different.

Scotland has always had its own legal and judicial system, but for several centuries it did not have autonomy in matters of public administration. However, on September 11, 1997, a referendum was held in Scotland, as a result of which the majority was in favor of expanding Scotland's independence. Following the referendum, the relevant Act was passed in 1998. As a result, elections were held (in 1999, then in 2003) to the Scottish Parliament. The Scottish Parliament consists of 129 deputies elected for four years: 73 people under the majoritarian system, 56 under the proportional system. It has legislative powers on issues of economic development, taxes, housing, agriculture and forestry, fisheries, the environment, health, education, social security, etc. Other powers remain the responsibility of the British Parliament. The executive power is exercised by the Government of Scotland, which is formed on the same principles as the British Government, and is in the same relations with Parliament.

For Wales legal and judicial autonomy is characteristic to a much lesser extent than in Scotland. Nevertheless, in a referendum on September 18, 1997, the idea of ​​​​introducing a certain (albeit less than in Scotland) autonomy was supported. The main body ensuring autonomy is the Assembly of Wales, to which 60 deputies are elected, of which 40 people are elected through the majoritarian system, and 20 through party lists. It is not vested with legislative powers, but has the right to broadly interpret laws adopted by the British Parliament in relation to the peculiarities of the regional development of Wales on issues of health, housing, education and a number of others.

Until 1972 Northern Ireland there was its own parliament, a government responsible to it was formed. Then, due to the worsening political conflict, autonomy was abolished until 1998, when agreements were reached in Belfast, which were later enshrined in the Northern Ireland Act. An Assembly was elected and an executive body was formed with corresponding powers, and the powers of these bodies in Northern Ireland are broader than the powers of similar bodies in Scotland. The Assembly has been in force since November 29, 1999, and consists of 108 members - six from each of the 18 electoral districts. The First Minister and his Deputy are elected together, which forces political parties to act in concert. The highest executive bodies of Northern Ireland are formed on the basis of the representation of parties according to the Hondt formula. On February 11, 2000, based on the Northern Ireland Act 2000, the activities of the Assembly and executive bodies of Northern Ireland were suspended until May 30, 2000, which was de facto direct control of the region was established. Subsequently, its activities were suspended twice more by order of the Minister of Internal Affairs for 24 hours to resolve crisis situations: on August 10 and September 22, 2001. At the same time, the significant prerogatives of the central government are retained. In particular, it has the right to suspend the activities of bodies. authorities in Northern Ireland, which has already been implemented once.

The UK Government provides for the position of Secretaries of State for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. They ensure, on the one hand, that the interests of the relevant territories are taken into account, and on the other hand, they exercise administrative supervision over their authorities.

Concerning England, then it is currently divided into 4 regions on a purely geographical basis. Following reforms in the 1990s in Northern Ireland, Wales and Scotland, England remained the only constituent part of the UK without its own parliament and government. The functions of the Parliament of England are performed by the Parliament of Great Britain, the functions of the government are performed by the Government of Great Britain. There is a movement in support of the creation of an independent parliament and government for England.

Territories with special status .
Territories with a special status are island territories (the Isle of Man and a number of other islands in close proximity to Great Britain) and dependent territories, or “overseas possessions” (Gibraltar, St. Helena, Falkland Islands, Bermuda, etc.). The differences between them are, firstly, in the history and reasons for falling under British sovereignty, and secondly, in the degree of unification of the system of power. Thus, island territories have their own judicial systems, but dependent territories do not; in each dependent territory there is a governor representing the monarch, although he occupies a different position, the very presence of the post of governor to a certain extent unifies the system of power, and in the island territories the power is not unified. But these differences are still not fundamental.

Administrative divisions in Great Britain.
The entire territory of England, Wales and Northern Ireland is divided into counties. There are 45 counties in England. The counties, in turn, consist of 296 districts. In rural areas and small towns of England, the lower administrative-territorial unit is the parish. Greater London, which consists of 32 urban districts and the City, is allocated as a separate administrative-territorial unit, not part of the county system. The territory of Wales also consists of 22 counties, of which 11 are city-counties. In rural areas, counties are divided into communities. Northern Ireland consists of six counties, which are divided into 26 districts. In Scotland, the top level territorial units; There are 32 territorial so-called local government units, including three island territories. The grassroots territorial unit is the community.

4. British Parliament.

Structure and formation of parliament.
The British Parliament is a classic example of the so-called “Westminster model” (in fact, he gave this model its name) and consists of two chambers - the House of Commons and the House of Lords, as well as the monarch, who is an integral part of it.

The House of Commons is elected for a term of five years on the basis of a majority system with 659 members to date. The President of the House of Commons is called the Speaker. He is elected by the Chamber from among its members based on agreement between the ruling and opposition parties. The candidacy of the speaker is approved by the monarch, but this is largely a symbolic act. The Speaker is formally elected for the term of office of the House, but if he remains a deputy after new parliamentary elections, then the deputies traditionally re-elect the Speaker for a new term. The Speaker has the authority to both represent the House of Commons externally (provides interaction between the House of Commons and the monarch, the House of Lords, and the Government) and to direct the work of the House. In the latter area, he has particularly significant powers, in particular, he determines the type of bill (financial or ordinary), which affects the procedure for its passage, the method of voting, the presence of grounds for terminating debate, appoints chairmen of standing committees, etc. The Speaker of the House of Commons does not participates in debates. He is obliged to behave politically impartially. He is not even given the right to vote and participate in debates, but if the votes of deputies are equal, he is obliged to vote, and then his vote becomes decisive.

Other responsible officials of the House of Commons are the Deputy Speakers (one of them is the first), the Leader of the House of Commons (in fact, the representative of the Government in the House, but at the same time a member of the House) and the Clerk - a non-parliamentarian official appointed by the monarch (in fact - Chamber) without term limits. The Clerk is in charge of the House staff and is the Speaker's adviser on matters of procedure and parliamentary privileges. Order in the House of Commons is maintained by the bailiff. A collegial governing body is not created in the Chamber. At the same time, a House of Commons Committee is created consisting of the Speaker, the Leader of the House (he represents the ruling party), a member of the House appointed by the Leader of the Opposition, and three members of the House who are not ministers. The House of Commons Committee appoints the staff of the House services, sets their salaries, and supervises the work of employees.

In the House of Commons it is possible to create permanent and temporary committees. TO standing committees include those created by the Chamber of specialized (in sectors and management functions, for example, industry and trade, transport; mainly having control functions regarding the relevant areas of activity of the government and ministries) and non-specialized (designated by the letters A, B, C, etc. - total eight; mainly have the functions of working with bills without their sectoral link). Permanent ones can also include sessional committees, formally created at the beginning of each session of the Chamber for the period until its completion to resolve issues of organizing work (commissions on Rules, on privileges, on procedure and a number of others), but recreated for each new session in the same form, therefore they are really not temporary, but permanent.

Temporary committees are created to address individual issues. Among them are joint committees of both houses of parliament, formed from their representatives and created to consider non-political issues and some bills. Provisional committees can also be called committees of the whole House, which represent the House of Commons as a whole. This form of work of the House of Commons is used when discussing significant (mainly financial and constitutionally significant) bills to simplify the traditional procedure. The meeting is chaired not by the speaker, but by a special temporary chairman.

The House of Lords currently has four types of members. Two of them occupy a seat in the House of Lords by ex officio: the Lords Spiritual (the highest hierarchs of the Church of England) and the Lords Judicial (there are 12 of them, they are appointed to perform the judicial functions of the House). There is a category of hereditary lords (peers) - - recently their number has been reduced by law, as well as life lords (peers), appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the Prime Minister for services to Great Britain. Under legislation passed by the House of Commons in 2000, the House of Lords will soon have no hereditary peers at all.

So, the Episcopacy Act 1878 is now in force, establishing a list of 26 Lords Spiritual - members of the House of Lords ex officio (ex officio). The reform of the House of Lords, carried out by the 1999 Act of the same name, excluded hereditary lords from members of the upper house of the Westminster Parliament. For the transition period, 92 of the 758 (as of November 1, 1999) hereditary lords were retained in the chamber for life. These include: the Earl Marshal (chief master of ceremonies and chairman of the British Chamber of Heraldry) and the Lord Chief Chamberlain ex officio and 90 elected hereditary lords. Of the latter, 75 were elected by four parliamentary groups in proportion to their representation: 42 Conservatives, 28 Independent Democrats, three Lib Dems and two Labour. The remaining 15 are chosen by the entire House to serve as the Deputy Speaker and other officials of the House. Of these, nine are Conservatives and two each are representatives of other parliamentary groups: Independents, Liberal Democrats and Labor. Now all hereditary lords, with the exception of those remaining in the House of Lords, have the right to stand for election, including for the House of Commons.

The House of Lords is headed by the Lord Chancellor, who is part of the government and appointed by the monarch on the proposal of the Prime Minister for a term of five years. He has less ability to make individual decisions on organizing the work of the Chamber than the speaker. His powers lie rather in the sphere of the judiciary: the Lord Chancellor is the government's chief adviser on justice issues, heads the judiciary, is the chairman of the highest judicial bodies, and plays an important role in the appointment of judges. The Lord Chancellor has two deputies. However, in 2003 the Government decided to abolish the existing position of Lord Chancellor in the near future and legislate for the establishment of a new institution to carry out the functions currently performed by the Lord Chancellor. In addition, the newly appointed Lord Chancellor in 2003 made a statement that, as a judge, he would not sit in the House of Lords, nor would he serve as Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs, and thus would cease to combine the positions of judge and minister. The new Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs will no longer preside over the upper house of Parliament.

The position of leader of the chamber is provided. This is the representative of the party that wins the election to the House of Commons, even if it has a minority in the House of Lords. He is vested with separate organizational powers. In the House of Lords, as in the House of Commons, the position of clerk is provided with approximately the same status as in the House of Commons. The House of Lords creates committees on specific issues, for example the Committee on Science and Technology, the Committee on European Union Affairs and others. Such committees can act as permanent or temporary. It is possible for both chambers to form joint committees to consider issues under the jurisdiction of both chambers.

Factions can be created in both Chambers. However, they have no real weight in the House of Lords. House of Commons factions are characterized by the presence of “whips” - persons appointed by the party leadership who ensure, as already noted, the voting and behavior of faction members in the interests of the party.

Powers of Parliament.
The main power is legislation. Parliament's powers to pass laws are virtually unlimited. He can pass legislation on almost any issue, but in recent years he has preferred to delegate authority in this area to the government. The ability of parliament to resolve by law any essentially issue is confirmed by the fact that bills (bills) adopted in parliament can be public (designed to regulate relations of general interest) and private (affect the interests of certain individuals, groups of individuals or territories). Sometimes mixed bills are distinguished that combine these characteristics. Note that laws in the UK can not only regulate social relations themselves, but also determine the direction of government policy and resolve specific issues.

Bills can be introduced in either House of Parliament, except for Finance Bills, which can only be introduced in the House of Commons. In fact, the review always begins in the House of Commons. There, bills are adopted, as a rule, in three readings. The law is passed by a majority vote and then sent to the House of Lords, which may or may not agree with the House of Commons. In case of disagreement, a compromise version of the law can be developed and adopted (using the “shuttle” method). If agreement cannot be reached in this way, then the entry into force of the law is postponed for a year. After a year, the House of Commons can pass the law in the same wording, and it will come into force. The entry into force of laws on financial matters is delayed by only one month, and their re-enactment is not required. If both houses pass a bill (or the House of Commons overrides the House of Lords' opposition to it), it is sent to the monarch and, once signed and published, becomes legally binding.

In recent years, the delegation of legislative powers to the government (Cabinet of Ministers) has developed.

The chambers also have control powers. The absolute majority are concentrated in the House of Commons. The government is controlled by her. Control is exercised, firstly, through oral and written questions from deputies, which must be answered, secondly, through specialized or temporary specially created committees, thirdly, by expressing (by making a decision by the Chamber) regret about government policies - This is a softer formula than an expression of mistrust. In addition, control can be carried out with the help of special officials: the parliamentary Commissioner for Administration (in fact, this is an ombudsman, but he accepts complaints for consideration not from citizens, but through the House of Commons) and the Auditor General. The highest manifestation of control powers is the issuance of no confidence (resolution of censure) or denial of trust to the government. The control powers of the House of Lords are exercised in the form of: a) questions to government ministers; b) creating temporary committees to study relevant problems.

The House of Lords also has judicial powers and is the highest judicial body in the country.

Parliamentary procedure.
The procedure of the British Parliament has a number of features. Firstly, there are no regulations for the work of chambers as single written acts. The working order is determined mainly by customs and parliamentary traditions. Secondly, the quorum is very low - 40 people for the House of Commons and three people for the House of Lords. Thirdly, voting is, as a rule, open, and methods such as division are used (parliamentarians leave through different doors depending on the decision they support) and acclamation (the decision is made depending on the volume of shouts from supporters of one or another option). Fourthly, a system for limiting debate has been developed. In order to ensure the effectiveness of the legislative process in parliament, various methods of limiting debate are used ("guillotine", "kangaroo", simply stopping debate at the request of 100 parliamentarians and a number of others). Finally, the entire procedure of the House of Commons, even the peculiar seating arrangement of parliamentarians (opposite each other), reflects the presence of the ruling (government) and opposition parties and is built around such a balance of forces.

Dissolution of the House of Commons.
Formally, the monarch has virtually unlimited power to dissolve the House of Commons. However, according to custom, it can only be implemented at the initiative of the Prime Minister and only as an alternative to the resignation of the government after expressing no confidence or denial of confidence in it.

Parliamentarian status.
In relation to the House of Commons, it is characterized primarily by a free mandate. However, when voting, a deputy is usually bound by his factional affiliation. A deputy works on a permanent basis and receives remuneration for his work. A deputy mandate is incompatible with entrepreneurial activity, but is compatible with holding key positions in the executive branch. The British Parliament is characterized by extremely limited parliamentary immunity. It is that a parliamentarian cannot be held accountable for speaking in parliament (but not elsewhere). In other cases, the basis for starting criminal procedural procedures is the consent of the speaker.

5. Monarch

Great Britain is a parliamentary monarchy.

The position of the monarch (king or queen) in the system of power is determined by the formula “reigns, but does not rule.” Its task is to symbolize the stability of state institutions. At the same time, it is formally endowed with quite large capabilities - both by fixed statutes (there are not very many of them), so; and considered as the inherent powers of the monarch (prerogatives exist insofar as they are not limited by statutes). Prerogatives concern the personal status of the monarch (personal prerogatives) and his place in the system of power (political prerogatives).

Prerogatives of the Monarch .
The political prerogatives of the monarch are formally very great. He, in particular, appoints the Prime Minister, leads the Armed Forces, appoints judges, grants pardons, has the right to convene and dissolve parliament, signs laws, is the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, has the right to declare war and make peace, conclude international treaties, appoint diplomatic representatives and etc. However, the monarch does not exercise powers independently. The government is appointed by him based on the results of parliamentary elections, and all other actions in which power is manifested are carried out subject to the countersignature of the Prime Minister and on the initiative of the government (Cabinet). The monarch, however, has some “hidden” powers that he can exercise himself, depending, of course, on the political situation. Thus, several times, in the absence of a clearly defined majority in parliament as a result of parliamentary elections, the government was formed on the basis of the choice made by the monarch. The monarch also retains the right of absolute veto on laws, but since the beginning of the 18th century, as already mentioned, it has practically not been used.

Personal prerogatives consist, firstly, in the presence of attributes of power (throne, power, scepter, title, mantle), secondly, in the right to the royal court and civil list (monetary allowance), thirdly, in the immunity of the monarch - the principle his irresponsibility (“a monarch cannot do wrong”). The institution of countersignature serves precisely to ensure immunity. At the intersection of personal and political prerogatives are the following elements of the monarch's status: he heads the British Commonwealth - an association of former British colonies, some of which, such as Australia, recognize the monarch as head of state; in addition, he is the head of the Church of England.

Succession to the throne .
The Act of Succession of 1701 established the Castilian system of succession to the throne in Great Britain. In accordance with it, the succession to the throne is carried out by the eldest son, and in the absence of a son, by the eldest daughter. The monarch himself can appoint another heir. The heir to the monarch acquires the title "Prince of Wales". The English monarch must be a Protestant by religion and cannot be married to a Catholic or a divorcee.

Privy Council .
The Privy Council is a specific body, directly related both organizationally and historically to the institutions of the monarchy. The Privy Council includes ministers, judges of the Court of Appeal, archbishops of the Church of England, the Speaker of the House of Commons, British ambassadors to foreign countries and a number of senior civil servants - about 400 people in total. The Privy Council has the status of an advisory body to the monarch. Many decisions of the monarch are traditionally formalized as acts adopted “in Council”). Such acts are adopted in the form of proclamations (for example, the convocation and dissolution of parliament, the declaration of war and peace and other significant issues) or in the form of orders. However, this does not remove the requirement for countersignature of acts of the monarch. The Privy Council can create subdivisions for specific areas of activity, the only actually functioning of which is the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.

6. Government.

The UK executive system.
The executive power of Great Britain is exercised by the Government, which consists of the heads of ministries and other departments, ministers of state (deputy ministers who are professionals in the relevant field of management and retain their powers regardless of the change of ministers and which party forms the government), parliamentary secretaries (deputy ministers for relations with parliament), a number of other officials.

The government is headed by the prime minister. His powers arise from political traditions and customs, in particular they cover certain powers that, from a formal point of view, belong to the prerogatives of the monarch. The Prime Minister forms the government and directs its activities, monitors the implementation of government decisions by ministries and departments. Officially, he holds the position of First Lord of the Treasury. Thanks to his set of powers, he plays a key role.

The government as a whole, due to its large number, does not actually meet as a single collegial body. Therefore, a cabinet management system developed. The Cabinet represents a group of ministers appointed by the Prime Minister, which makes collective decisions on the most important issues. Usually it is about 20-30 people. The Cabinet speaks on behalf of the government as a whole. Within the Cabinet, an even narrower board is created - the so-called internal cabinet, which includes a group of the prime minister’s closest associates from among the members of the Cabinet. The internal Cabinet does not have any formal legal status. Other boards may be created within the Cabinet of Ministers: to consider individual issues, for example on defense, foreign policy, economic policy and planning, etc. The decision to create such boards (committees) is made by the Prime Minister.

Formation and resignation of the government.
The leader of the party that wins the election to the House of Commons is appointed Prime Minister. Formally, the appointment is made by the monarch. After this, the prime minister forms a government mainly from parliamentarians. The Cabinet in general can only include members of Parliament, mainly the House of Commons, but also the House of Lords (for example, the Lord Chancellor). At the same time, state ministers, as professional deputy ministers, must ensure stability of government. The government resigns if the House of Commons refuses to trust it or expresses no confidence (the latter has not yet been applied in political practice). However, if the monarch, at the proposal of the Prime Minister, dissolves the House of Commons, then the government does not resign.

Functions and powers of government.
The main functions of the Cabinet of Ministers are to determine the policy course to be discussed in the UK and approved by Parliament, and to implement this course. The Cabinet of Ministers heads the executive branch: it coordinates the activities of ministries and departments. But in addition to the functions and powers of the executive branch itself, the Cabinet includes functions and powers that traditionally belong to the head of state, which the monarch does not actually exercise: for example, managing foreign policy and concluding treaties. They are carried out by the Prime Minister.

Although the government is formally controlled by the House of Commons, in fact, since the prime minister is usually the leader of the party with a majority in the House of Commons, a government with a relatively stable parliamentary majority can push decisions it needs through parliament.

7. UK judicial system

Courts in Great Britain.
The UK judicial system is somewhat archaic and confusing, although it works quite effectively, as well as the presence of its own judicial systems: a) in England and Wales; 6) in Scotland; c) in Northern Ireland; d) in some island territories. The UK judicial system is characterized by the active use of jury trials.

The judicial system of England and Wales includes: the Supreme Court, consisting of the Court of Appeal, the High Court and the Crown Court (these are the highest courts); magistrates' courts and county courts (these are lower courts). These are courts of general jurisdiction. In addition, there is a system of administrative tribunals of several subtypes depending on the branch of management. Industrial tribunals that hear labor disputes are also a type of them. Appellate tribunals are also being created: each subtype of administrative tribunal has its own. In the system of industrial tribunals - the Labor Appeal Tribunal. In England and Wales there are also military and ecclesiastical courts, whose competence includes, respectively, the consideration of cases of offenses by military personnel and persons of clergy rank. Juvenile courts operate as specialized courts.

The Court of Appeal, which is part of the Supreme Court, consists of two divisions: civil and criminal. The Civil Division hears appeals against decisions of the High Court, County Courts and Appeal Tribunals. The Criminal Division hears appeals against decisions of the Crown Court.

The High Court consists of three divisions: 1) the Chancery Division; 2) department of the king's bench; 3) family affairs department. The Chancery Division, as a court of first instance, considers individual civil cases (on issues of bankruptcy, trust, etc.), and as an appellate instance - complaints against certain (also, as a rule, related to certain aspects of economic activity) civil decisions county courts The Division of the Queen's Bench, as a trial and appellate court, hears civil cases related to the performance of contracts and damages, as well as some categories of criminal cases. It, in turn, consists of the Commercial Court to hear commercial disputes and the Admiralty Court to hear claims for damages in connection with shipping. The Family Division, as a trial and appellate court, hears family matters, guardianship, adoption, paternity, and other similar matters.

The Crown Court hears primarily serious criminal cases and, as an appellate body, hears appeals from people convicted in magistrates' courts.

County courts hear minor civil cases. Magistrates' courts have criminal and civil jurisdiction. Their criminal jurisdiction includes the consideration of cases of minor crimes, and their civil jurisdiction includes simple civil cases (primarily matrimonial and family matters relating to the collection of public and private law debts). At the bottom rung of the “judicial ladder” are magistrates, who may not have a legal education and work for free.

Scotland's judicial system is autonomous. The highest courts are the High Court of Justice and the Court of Session. The lower courts include sheriff and district courts. The High Court of Justice has jurisdiction in criminal matters. At first instance, the High Court of Justice hears cases of serious criminal offences; by way of appellate jurisdiction - complaints against sentences of lower courts. The Court of Session is the highest judicial body in civil matters, consisting of two chambers: outer and inner. The outer chamber of the Court of Session hears cases at first instance, and the inner chamber hears cases on appeal. Sheriff courts hear moderately serious criminal cases, as well as civil cases beyond the jurisdiction of the Court of Session. District courts, composed of magistrates or paid magistrates, hear minor criminal cases.

The judicial system of Northern Ireland is also autonomous, but it almost completely copies the judicial system of England and Wales, as well as the judicial system of the Isle of Man and a number of other islands under the jurisdiction of Great Britain.

The UK has supreme courts whose jurisdiction extends throughout the UK. These are the House of Lords and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council under the monarch. The House of Lords considers appeals in civil and criminal cases against decisions of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of England and Wales, the High Court of Northern Ireland, the Court of Session for Scotland (in the latter case - only in civil cases; appeals against decisions of the High Court of Justice are not provided). The conditions for filing an appeal are regulated by law (mainly an appeal is possible on significant issues of law). The establishment of a Supreme Court, completely independent of the House of Lords, is currently being considered.

The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, as a judicial body, is the body of appeal in relation to the ecclesiastical courts and high courts of the Isle of Man and a number of other islands under the jurisdiction of Great Britain and even in certain categories of cases for some independent island states in the Caribbean that are members of the Commonwealth of Nations. He also has an advisory function - at the request of the monarch, he expresses an opinion on issues of law.

Status of judges
The extensive system of courts predetermined the diversity of the status of judges. Lawyers who, as a rule, have very significant experience as a lawyer (barrister) can be appointed to the higher courts. The appointment is made by the monarch on the nomination of the Lord Chancellor. They are appointed without a term limit, but tenure is limited by an age limit (72 or 75 years depending on which court they are a judge of). The Lord Chancellor may dismiss them early if they commit offenses or become incapacitated. Judges of the Court of Appeal are subject to dismissal through parliamentary impeachment. Ricorders (acting judges) are appointed temporarily - for a clearly defined period. The requirements for them are not so high. With a certain length of service, a recorder can be appointed as an ordinary judge. Judges of the lower courts are appointed by the Lord Chancellor. He can dismiss them from office without giving reasons. In general, magistrates work until they reach 70 years of age, and paid magistrates - 65 years. Justices of the peace do not have to be professional lawyers. The Secretary of State for that territory is involved in the appointment of judges of the courts of Scotland and Northern Ireland. Judges of administrative tribunals are appointed with the participation of the relevant departments (for the branch of government in which the tribunal operates).

8. Local government and government bodies

Local government and government bodies.
Local self-government in administrative-territorial units is carried out mainly according to a similar scheme, although local self-government in England and Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland, as well as in other territories has certain specifics. The population elects a local council (in small settlements it is replaced by a council). Members of councils (advisers) work on a non-permanent basis. The main form of work of the council is the session. The council elects a chairman from among its members (in cities he is called the mayor). Executive functions are performed by committees formed by the council and consisting of advisers and other persons. There are no councils in the counties of Northern Ireland and the six UK metropolitan areas, i.e. the major cities. There was also no local government for Greater London for some time.

The Greater London Government Act 1999 establishes the Greater London Government: a separate and directly elected four-year Mayor of London and a London Assembly, including the London, City, Inner and Middle Palace boroughs. The Mayor of London is responsible for developing and implementing strategies in the fields of transport and the environment, economic development and culture, and preparing the budget for all city authorities. The mayor also appoints certain individuals to the four functional departments. The Assembly is called upon to consult, review and approve the decisions of the mayor, the city budget, including the funds of functional departments, by a qualified majority. At the same time, she conducts investigations on issues important to London. Elections for the Mayor of London are held using a first-past-the-post system where there are fewer than three candidates. If three or more candidates are vying for this post, the additional vote system is used, that is, a plurality vote is used in combination with preferential voting.

The Assembly, consisting of 25 deputies, is elected under the "additional member system". 14 MPs are elected from single-member constituencies, uniting two or three London boroughs and established by this law on the basis of recommendations developed by the Local Government Commission for England following the implementation of the Greater London Referendum Act 1998. The Home Secretary determines the boundaries and names of constituencies and reviews them periodically. The rest, referred to as "Members of London", are elected from a single multi-member constituency that forms London as a whole. During regular elections every four years, the mayor, 11 members of London, and 14 single-member members are elected. They were first held on May 4, 2000. The power to postpone the date of elections rests with the Minister of Internal Affairs by issuing an order. Subsequent elections shall be held on the first Thursday in May of the fourth calendar year following the previous one.

During the election of members of the Assembly, a plurality vote is used, i.e. the voter has two votes: one to elect a single-member deputy, the second to vote in one London multi-member constituency for the list of a political party or an independent candidate. When distributing seats in a single London constituency, the Hondt formula is used to ensure the widest representation by the party: a candidate cannot be nominated in more than one single-member constituency in London. In the event of a vacancy in the deputy's mandate, elections must be held no later than 35 days from the date of determination of the vacant seat, excluding Sundays and weekends. If a vacancy of a seat is determined six months before the next election, it is held only if there are more vacancies in the Assembly. London can fill it with the next candidate on the list. Similar rules exist for the position of mayor. The temporary performance of his powers is vested in the deputy (vice-mayor) or the speaker (chairman) of the Assembly.

However, the local government reform being carried out in connection with the UK’s accession to the European Charter of Local Self-Government is intended to allow, firstly, the independent determination of the system of local government bodies, and secondly, the creation of such bodies where there were none before. Thus, on the basis of a referendum in Greater London, a system of local government bodies was created, including a City Assembly and a Mayor elected by the population.

Relations between local authorities and national government bodies.
Local authorities in Great Britain exercise their powers within the limits determined by Parliament or on behalf of Parliament by the government. This is the essence of the doctrine of inter vires - key for local government in the UK. Thus, each territorial unit has its own competence, determined by law. In the UK, including locally, government bodies are not created to oversee local government. Such supervision in practice can be carried out by central sectoral and functional departments in their areas of activity. They can conduct inspections of local activities in this area and have the right to approve certain acts of local authorities, in particular on personnel issues. In addition, government agencies can organize an audit of the financial activities of local authorities. The legality of acts of local government bodies, including compliance with the limits of authority, is controlled by the courts.