The total length of all borders of Norway. Norway. Geographical location of Norway. Climate and nature of Norway

General characteristics of Norway.

Norway (Kingdom of Norway) is a state in Northern Europe, occupying the western and northern parts of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Territory - 323895 sq. km.; together with the Spitsbergen archipelago, Jan Mayen Island, etc. - 387 thousand square meters. km. Population - about 4.3 million, Norwegians (98%), Sami, Kvens, Finns, Swedes, etc. Capital - Oslo. The official language is Norwegian. Religion - Lutheranism.

The monetary unit is Norwegian krone.

Norway gained state independence in 1905

Norway is a constitutional monarchy. The head of state is the king. Administrative - territorial division (18 county). The highest legislative body is the Storting (unicameral parliament). Executive power is exercised by the government appointed by the king.

Natural conditions and resources of Norway.

Norway is located in a maritime temperate climate with cool summers (+6 - +15 degrees Celsius) and fairly warm winters (+2 - -12 degrees Celsius). Precipitation on the plain is 500-600 mm, on the windward side of the mountains the amount increases to 2000-2500 mm. The seas don't freeze.

Most of Norway's territory is occupied by the Scandinavian Mountains. The highest mountain peak in Northern Europe, Mount Gallhepiggen, is located here. The coastline of Norway is indented by long, deep bays called fjords. During the last ice age, a thick sheet of ice formed over Scandinavia. The ice, spreading to the sides, cut deep narrow valleys with steep banks. About 11,000 years ago, the ice sheet melted, ocean levels rose, and seawater flooded many of these valleys, creating Norway's spectacular fjords (see cover photo).

Norway has large reserves of hydropower, forests (productive forest occupies 23.3% of the territory), deposits of iron, copper, zinc, lead, nickel, titanium, molybdenum, silver, granite, marble, etc. Reliable oil reserves amount to more than 800 million tons ., natural gas - 1210 billion cubic meters. Total capital investment in the offshore oil sector reached a record NOK 60 billion, or 7.5% of GDP, and contributed significantly to the growth of other oil production equipment and related infrastructure industries. The purpose of this huge investment is to increase the profitability of the oil industry and improve the country's macroeconomics. Investments are mainly focused on the giant Stotford field, discovered 20 years ago at the dawn of Norway's oil era.

While oil production tends to decline, gas production in Norway is on the rise. Norway is successfully developing into an important gas producing country. Its share in the Western European gas market is approaching 15%. Gas production is expected to reach 70 billion cubic meters by the end of the century, and gas sales contracts have already exceeded the total volume of 50 billion cubic meters per year.

More than half of all discovered gas fields in Western Europe are located on the Norwegian continental shelf. According to representatives of the Norwegian state company Statoil, unlike the 20th century, which was the century of oil, the 21st century will apparently become the century of gas, especially due to the fact that concern for a clean environment is becoming the driving force behind the growth of its consumption.

Economic and geographical location.

Northern Europe is united by many socio-economic characteristics: proximity of production and company structures, high economic efficiency and standard of living. In general, the region is a large economic complex, which, due to the specialization of production, occupies a special place in the world economy and the international division of labor. With developed industry, intensive agriculture, an extensive service sector and extensive foreign economic relations, these countries, while inferior to major powers in the overall scale of production and the size of the labor force, are ahead of them in many indicators per capita. If the share of the Nordic countries in the capitalist world is less than 1% in terms of population, then in terms of gross domestic product and industrial production it is approximately 3%, and in terms of exports it is about 5%.

The strength of the Nordic countries is not in quantity, but in the quality and products produced, mainly exported. Norway is one of the most economically developed countries in the world. Having an advanced production base and highly qualified force, Norway, with its dependence on foreign markets, for a long time followed mainly the path of searching and consolidating its “niches”, relatively narrow specialization in the production of certain products, systems, components, and assemblies.

At the same time, the Norwegian economy has always been characterized by the ability to quickly adapt to the changing situation in the global economy. Initially, specialization was based on natural resources and geographical location. The sea played an important role. Norway was famous for its international shipping, fishing and whaling. The presence of a large number of deep and turbulent rivers has brought Norway to first place in Western Europe in terms of hydropower reserves.

In recent decades, industries using modern technologies have come to the fore. Currently, there is an increasing focus on the production of knowledge-intensive, high-tech products (electronics, industrial work, biotechnology, etc.). The combination of new industries with traditional ones that are undergoing or have already undergone radical restructuring lies the basis of the modern specialization of the Norwegian economy.

The economic crises of the mid-70s and early 80s, the interweaving of cyclical downturns and structural changes, almost negated the benefits that Norway derived from specialization and made it difficult to maneuver due to the asynchronous, multi-temporal nature of the economic cycle, as was the case before. In the second half of the 70s, according to a number of important indicators, Norway was supported only by oil.

With the transition to an intensive, resource-saving type of reproduction and modern technologies, Norway, taking into account its national needs and capabilities, and the lessons of the crisis, has embarked on the path of structural restructuring and defining new directions. Mainly in the export sector, which is increasingly experiencing the blows of competition in world markets.

Norway is an industrial-agrarian country with a high share in the economy of energy-intensive industries, as well as shipping, fishing and, in recent years, the oil refining and petrochemical industries.

The dominant position in the economy is occupied by the private capitalist sector. In the post-war period, an intensive process of capital concentration occurred in the country. Large enterprises (500 or more employees), constituting 1% of the total number of industrial enterprises (82% of enterprises are small, employing up to 50 people), account for about 25% of all employees; The 3 largest banks control about 60% of bank capital. The concentration of production is accompanied by the disappearance of a large number of small and medium-sized enterprises. The number of small farms is also decreasing. The penetration of foreign capital into the country is constantly increasing, mainly American, English, Swedish (mainly in the oil industry and shipping)

Analysis of the economic development of Norway.

The formation of capitalist economic structures in Norway was distinguished by a certain originality: the later stages of industrialization, its significant dependence on the needs of the foreign market, the ability to achieve a favorable position in it for their goods and services.

Almost without participating in the territorial division of the world, Norway, even without colonies, thanks to production and financial ties to the profits of major powers, became part of the world economic system. Already at the end of the last - beginning of this century, on the basis of the concentration and centralization of production and capital, large companies emerged, mainly export-oriented, and financial groups began to take shape.

In Norway, low economic conditions and crisis phenomena have been observed since 1986, when oil prices fell sharply due to the transition to energy-saving technologies. Over the course of one year, the contribution of the oil industry decreased from 18.5% of GDP to 11%. In subsequent years, a strong increase in oil production raised this figure to 16% of GDP, but, according to experts, oil production will begin to fall again in the near future. Natural gas revenues will fill the gap for at least a few years. But will the country's relatively weak, state-dominated oil side of the economy be strong enough to make up for the shortfall when the oil sector begins to shrink? These worries have been exacerbated in recent years by a sharp deterioration in public finances. Generous fiscal policy adopted by the Workers' Party government after 1990. in order to mitigate the difficulties of the recession, led to an increase in the state budget deficit to 12.5%. Realizing these long-term difficulties, the government in 1993 presented to parliament a program for 1994-1997, in which it outlined a strategy for eliminating them. It is based on a significant tightening of fiscal policy, curbing transfer payments in favor of infrastructure investment, and a general shift in emphasis from the public to the private sector.

Personal consumption in 1992 was below the 1986 level. by almost 3%. Gross capital investments are significantly lower than in 1988. Import in 1992 was lower than in 1986, by 3.5%, and the volume of production and manufacturing industry was even lower than the level of 1985. This bleak picture was only mitigated by oil production. The volume of gross capital investments is shown in Fig. 2.

The inflation rate gradually decreased in May 1993. amounted to 2.4% on an annual basis, and in 1994 1.7%. But the level of wage costs was still noticeably higher than in other countries, although the competitiveness of Norwegian goods in 1993 11% higher than the 1988 level.

Norway is the jewel of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The country is located in its western part, washed by the Atlantic and Arctic Ocean. What geographical features does Norway have?

Geography of Norway

The Kingdom of Norway is considered a northern state with a temperate climate. In addition to the oceans, the Norwegian coast is washed by 3 seas that are part of them. The waves of the North and Norwegian Seas crash on the shores of Norway. Another sea that is nearby is the Barents Sea.

The area of Norwegian territories is estimated at 385 thousand square meters. km.

Island formations belonging to the country occupy 62 thousand square meters of the total area. km. Norway borders Sweden, Russia, and Finland. The maritime borders of the state lie next to Denmark.

Norway's coastline, indented by fjords, is approximately 25 thousand km. There is an opinion that such a line can encircle the Earth twice.

The kingdom's terrain is mountainous and uneven. The highest point in Norway is Galhepiggen Peak. The height of the peak is 2469 meters.

In addition to mountain ranges, the Norwegian state has many rivers and lakes. The longest river in the country is called Glomma. The length of the river is 604 km. Glomma's water area makes up 13% of Norway's total area.

The kingdom is located in the Northern Hemisphere. Norway's lands extend across the Eurasian continent.

Geographical features of Norway

The main geographical feature of the Kingdom of Norway is its location on the Scandinavian Peninsula. The country seems to be stretched out in a narrow strip along the coast in the northwest. The widest point of Norwegian territory is approximately 420 km.

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Norway

General characteristics of Norway

The monetary unit is Norwegian krone.

Norway gained state independence in 1905

Natural conditions and resources of Norway

Economic-geographical location

Analysis of Norway's economic development

The state budget deficit is still high - 50 billion crowns in 1993. By the spring of 1993 Interest rates dropped noticeably, and the decline in employment stopped.

For the first five months of 1993. exports amounted to 88 billion crowns, and imports 60 billion crowns. Oil accounts for 43% of all Norwegian merchandise exports.

The country's banking crisis is now in its fifth year, although the worst is over. All large commercial banks, except Den Norske Bank, found themselves completely dependent on the state. The banking crisis began with a dramatic drop in oil prices and spread to all other sectors of the economy.

1994 marked the beginning of an economic recovery. GDP grew by 3.5%. Inflation was less than 1%. The balance of payments is associated with a large surplus, exceeding 2.5% of GDP. Unemployment settled at 5.5% of the country's economically active population. The unemployment rate from 1989 to 1995 characterizes

1995 ended at approximately the same economic level. However, the pace of development of the oil economy is declining. Ten years ago, manufacturing contributed 20% of GDP; now it contributes only 13%. Norway, long bolstered by North Sea oil, may be entering a critical phase that will determine whether it can maintain its position as one of Europe's most prosperous countries well into the 21st century.

In many respects, Norway can be compared to a developing country, since its main exports consist mainly of raw materials (oil and gas) rather than finished industrial products. The manufacturing industry does not exceed 15% of GDP, which is considered the minimum level for modern industrial countries. The government is taking a number of measures to change the structure of its exports towards manufactured goods.

Asked what the government is doing in connection with the imminent reduction in oil production, Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland told the English Financial Times: “The government is pursuing a policy in which tax and structural measures are designed specifically to stimulate economic development and employment in material economy. We actively use the government budget to increase employment, strengthen the private sector and invest in skills and other infrastructure. Now that the economy has entered a period of relatively strong growth, it is important to strengthen the country's financial position.

Indeed, our oil production will decline in a few years, but given the growth in gas production, the exploitation of the Norwegian shelf will continue to be the mainstay of the country's economy for many years to come. Therefore, increasing production on the Norwegian mainland will help maintain balanced growth. The cost-competitiveness of the Norwegian economy has improved significantly and the outlook for the mainland economy is now better than it was a few years ago. This means that we are becoming less dependent on oil.

Political-geographical location

Norway as a single state was formed at the end of the 9th century AD. At an early stage, contacts were established with the Russian principalities. The sons of Norwegian kings grew up at the princely courts in Russia, Russian princesses became queens of Norway. Norwegians traveled around Russia, served as guards for Russian princes (they were called Varangians), and there was an active exchange of goods. Subsequently, as a result of the devastating Black Death (plague) around 1350, Norway's economic situation worsened and the country fell under the rule of the Danish crown. In 1814, at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the victorious Allies forced Denmark to cede Norway to Sweden as compensation for its loss of Finland in 1809. Norway took this opportunity to declare independence and adopted the most democratic Constitution in Europe at that time, which is still in force today, although with significant amendments.

However, under the pressure of Sweden's military superiority and international isolation, Norway was forced to accept the inevitable. The Norwegian leadership voluntarily accepted the worthy offer of the Swedish crown to conclude a personal union with Sweden. Norway remained a separate state and retained its new Constitution. However, both kingdoms received one head of state and had to pursue a common foreign policy.

Over the next century there was a continuous growth of Norwegian national consciousness. Along with progress in industry, trade and shipping, there was a cultural revival. In politics, radical and democratic sentiments led to the emergence of opposition to the King of Sweden. Growing national consciousness emphasized the differences in living standards and lifestyles, as well as in political views, between Norway and Sweden. Influenced by diverging economic and foreign policy interests, the Norwegian parliament (Storting) voted in 1905 to break the union with Sweden. The ensuing referendum overwhelmingly supported the decision, and the two kingdoms separated peacefully. The first power to recognize Norway's new and completely independent status was the Russian Empire.

In the post-war period, Norway's political course was mainly determined by its participation in NATO (since 1949) and was aimed at close political and military-economic cooperation with the leading powers of this bloc (USA, UK, Germany). Norway's relations with the EEC are regulated by a free trade agreement (1973).

Foreign policy

In the post-war years, the Northern European countries, as is known, occupied a special place on the political map of the world. Sweden is characterized by its policy of active neutrality. Finland's neutrality was combined with a treaty of friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance with the USSR. NATO member states Norway, Denmark and Iceland have declared their refusal to station nuclear weapons on their territory in peacetime.

The difference in positions could not but affect the foreign policy behavior of the countries of the European North. At the same time, their role in international life has increased significantly. After all, from the object of history, which for a long time were small countries, constantly involved in the game and contradictions of large powers, they became its subject. They contribute to the course of the world historical process and actively participate in the formation of a new order in the spirit of the Helsinki Act and the Charter of Paris.

The new geopolitical situation that emerged at the turn of the 90s - dramatic changes in Central and Eastern Europe, the collapse of the USSR into sovereign republics, the emergence of the CIS, the independence of the Baltic states, the new role of Russia - forces the Nordic countries to rethink many important international problems.

The difficult, sometimes dramatically explosive process of renewal of our society is arousing great interest in the North of Europe. This interest is also dictated by business considerations, development prospects under new conditions of mutually beneficial cooperation - after all, we are neighbors and its stagnation is unnatural. But to an even greater extent it is dictated by the influence that changes in our country have on the development of pan-European and world processes, including those of a global nature.

Naturally, the attention of European northerners, as well as the entire West, is attracted by the amazing speed and scale of changes in Eastern Europe. The attitude of the Northern European states towards them (in general they support the changes taking place) is ambiguous, just as the shifts and cataclysms in individual Eastern European countries are inherently ambiguous. Thus, the unification of Germany, with general approval, also raises certain concerns (past historical experience has not been forgotten). If not anxiety, then uncertainty is also generated by the far from stable situation in Poland, their southern neighbor.

A fundamentally new situation for the European North arose in connection with the further development of integration processes: the formation of a single internal market of the EU by 1993 and plans to create an economic and monetary, and subsequently a political union of the participating countries.

Refusal to join the EU - a feature or a pattern?

Particular attention should be paid to the issue of joining the EU.

In the EU referendum, Norwegians defied their northern neighbors and voted against it. This caused surprise among other Europeans. The reluctance of Norwegians to join the EU seemed somehow inexplicable against the backdrop of the positive results of referendums in Austria, Finland, and Sweden in the same year.

The successful development of Norway's economy in the 90s significantly improved the well-being and standard of living of its residents. In 1994, the country ranked third in the ranking of countries with the highest share of GNP per capita in the world, inflation was at the level of 2-3% per year, there was a noticeable decrease in the number of unemployed, and experts predicted bright prospects and stable economic development in the coming years . All these factors testified to the healthy state of the economy and overshadowed the attractiveness of participation in EU regional programs with corresponding cash injections into the economic structures of the regions. Despite the fact that, if it were a member of the organization, the Arctic regions of Norway would be covered by the program of assistance to the northern regions, it was the residents of the North who spoke most negatively towards the EU, and the overwhelming majority of votes were cast against. Knowing the economic opportunities and development potential of their country, the last thing they thought about was possible funding from Brussels for local industries. In addition, according to calculations, in the first years of Norway's membership in the EU, Norway faced a negative balance of financial revenues from the organization's funds. Positive changes would begin to be observed only after a few years.

We must not forget about the oil factor. Oil and gas production on the continental shelf of the Norwegian Sea, which began in the mid-60s, radically changed the economic structure of society, giving the state treasury an invaluable source of income. Oil has become a kind of “insurance” in case of crisis situations, allowing for cash injections into lagging sectors of the economy. It was the feeling of the “oil baggage” behind them that gave the Norwegians, compared to other European countries, greater self-confidence and allowed them to feel less dependent on Brussels.

The narrowness of the domestic market also played a certain role in such a negative decision of the Norwegians. In a country with a population of 4.5 million people, it is difficult to create conditions favorable for the successful competition of a large number of large enterprises. Limited demand leads to strict selection and the creation of monopolistic companies that can dictate their own terms and exist, as it were, far from the raging elements of the free market. It cannot be said that entire sectors of the economy are monopolized in Norway, but this trend is most clearly manifested in the field of telecommunications and the sale of electricity. In addition, the state’s social policy, aimed at protecting all segments of the population and providing for “rehabilitation” programs for employees in the event of bankruptcy of an enterprise, creates “greenhouse” conditions for employees where they can be sure that even if they lose their job they have a good chance of finding a job. to a new place. If they joined the EU, such companies would face tough competition and new rules of the game, which would put them in a difficult position.

In Norway, you can immediately feel whether a particular company has experience in the international market; it stands out from others with a higher level of service, speed of decision-making, and the ability to quickly adapt to new market conditions.

The certain vulnerability of agriculture, operating in difficult northern conditions and requiring constant government funding, and the peculiarities of the profitable functioning of the fishing industry, also played a role in the choice of the Norwegians. It was the province and the North, where fishing is the main source of income, that voted against joining the European Union (52.2% voted against and 47.8% in favor).

Immediately after the announcement of the voting results, Norwegian politicians began to notice some changes in the attitude towards Norway on the part of their European colleagues. Norwegian diplomats had to stand for a long time at the doors of the offices of EU officials, waiting for them to have a minute of free time to discuss (in addition to issues of accession of new countries to the EU) the problems of their northern neighbor. The concept “country outside” even appeared in Norwegian newspapers.

This lack of attention on the part of the Brussels officials was only an illustration of the new position in which Norway had placed itself. The country stopped participating in meetings of committees and working groups of the organization (it had this right during accession negotiations). Thus, on the one hand, Norway has lost a number of valuable sources of information, and, on the other hand - and more importantly - it has lost the opportunity to exert direct influence from the outside on decisions made in the EU. Most often, it was faced with the fact of making any EU decision, without being able to influence its formation.

At the same time, Norway, as a member of the EEA (European Economic Area), is obliged to comply with EU directives relating not only to trade and exchange of goods, but also regulating issues of working conditions, social security, production of a number of goods and the provision of services. It was estimated that 47 domestic Norwegian rules and regulations were changed in accordance with EU directives in the first half of 1996 alone. Most of these changes do not create big problems either for the legal system or for the lives of ordinary citizens of the country, but Norwegians are aware that within the framework of the existing SES, which includes, in addition to Norway, Iceland, Switzerland, Malta and Liechtenstein, they have no real opportunities to influence the EU decision-making process and are forced to perceive them as a fait accompli.

More than 50% of Norwegian exports go to EU member countries, which indicates a direct dependence and, accordingly, Norway’s interest in developing relations with these countries. Thus, Norway is doomed to contacts with the EU.

The government of T. Jagland (like the previous government of G. H. Brundtland) is doing everything possible to maintain the constructive climate that exists in relations with the EU and to ensure the maximum possible participation in the work of the Union. Norway is involved in a number of regional programmes, including the Internet programme. The conceptual plan provides for and gradually implements joining the three directions of development of European economic structures. We are talking about a unified policy in the field of fisheries, where the parties have both common interests and contradictions that would be much easier to resolve within the framework of a single organizational structure. Norwegian experience in the field of fishing regulation could be useful to European partners. The second formation is the formation of a common EU energy policy. There are more uncertainties here, but Norway is directly interested in cooperation, given that the EU countries are the main consumers of Norwegian oil and gas, and together they can influence the price trend and create unfavorable conditions for energy exports. It is more profitable for Norway to be an active participant in the game than a passive outsider. Finally, the third area is cooperation within the framework of the passport union, the Schengen Agreement.

On December 19, 1996, a document was signed in Brussels on the associated membership of Norway and Iceland in the Schengen Agreement, providing for a single passport space and cooperation between law enforcement agencies of the participating countries. Formally, the Schengen Agreement applies only to EU states, so these two countries were granted associated status, which provides for participation without voting rights in the organization’s working groups. In taking this step, Norwegian representatives proceeded from the fact that within the framework of Schengen no decisions would be made that would contradict the position of Norway. The main reason for joining was the desire to preserve the northern passport union, which had existed long enough for people to get used to it and not want to lose it. Denmark, Sweden and Finland, by joining Schengen without Norway and Iceland, would have destroyed the established passport regime for crossing borders between the northern countries, which none of the northerners were interested in. In this regard, through lengthy negotiations, a compromise formula for associate membership was developed that satisfied all parties.

It can be said that, thanks to participation in the Schengen Agreement, Norway outside the EU has achieved its involvement in another important area of development of European integration.

There is currently a seeming lull in the intra-Norwegian European debate on relations between Norway and the EU. There is no question of submitting a new application to join the Union before the year 2000, and politicians are using Brussels arguments to a lesser extent to defend their positions. However, the topic of the EU is constantly present on newspaper pages and remains relevant for the country’s political establishment.

Many observers believe that by placing itself outside the EU, Norway managed to preserve its own identity and ability to act in the international arena based on its own interests, without regard to its European partners. Evidence of this was Norway's active involvement in the Middle East and mediation in the peace process in Guatemala, when the country was perceived as an independent independent participant, and not a representative of the EU. At the same time, despite the obvious successes of Norwegian foreign policy, it is safe to say that on a geopolitical scale, Norway’s position after the referendum in 1994 weakened rather than strengthened.

Nevertheless, the country is of great interest to Russia as a trade and economic partner. Norway is not subject to EU rules and restrictions on imported goods. Cooperation between Russia, Norway, Sweden and Finland within the Barents Sea region is developing at an active pace. The intensification of contacts in the border regions of the North continues. Thus, based on the positive experience of a number of Russian enterprises operating on the Norwegian market, it can be assumed that trade and economic relations between our countries will turn out to be a kind of springboard for Russia’s entry into the European market.

It is precisely in Norway that the predictability and certain pattern of the negative result of the 1994 referendum lies. The country chose to maintain the existing situation and did not want to give up part of its sovereignty in the name of the idea of European integration. It is possible that the Norwegians, trying to keep up with the development of the European system, will return to the issue of joining the EU at the beginning of the next century, but then Norway’s candidacy will be considered among the countries of Eastern Europe and it is unlikely that the conditions for its possible membership in the EU will be the same as in 1994

Spitsbergen

Spitsbergen is an archipelago beyond the Arctic Circle. Territory - 62 thousand square meters. km. There are over 1 thousand islands in the archipelago. There is no indigenous population.

Spitsbergen, together with the Bear Island located to the south, form the administrative district of Norway, Svalbard, which is governed by a governor appointed by the King of Norway.

Until 1920, the archipelago was a "no man's land". In February 1920, in Paris, representatives of a number of European states, the USA and Japan signed an international treaty establishing Norwegian sovereignty over Spitsbergen. In accordance with this treaty, the use of the archipelago for military purposes is prohibited.

60% of the archipelago's territory is covered with ice. Of the minerals, only coal is of industrial importance. The waters of the archipelago are inhabited by cod, halibut, haddock, harp seal, seal, and beluga whale; on the islands - polar bear, arctic fox, deer. However, fishing and hunting are carried out in limited quantities.

Spitsbegren is connected by sea through the ports of Tromso and Murmansk; since 1947, regular air service has been established between Norway and Spitsbergen

Industry in Norway

Norway's industrial production, including electricity, employs about 400 thousand workers and employees, of which about 95% work in manufacturing enterprises, and the rest in the mining industry and electric power industry.

In the industry structure, the so-called export industries, most of whose products are exported, stand out sharply due to their large scale and high technical level. On the one hand, fish processing and pulp and paper enterprises operate mainly on local raw materials, and on the other, electrometallurgy and electrochemistry, which process imported raw materials with the help of abundant and cheap electricity. Export industries should also include the mining industry - mines, the products of which are exported in the form of concentrates, and, of course, the oil and gas fields of the North Sea. In addition, mechanical engineering, especially large-tonnage shipbuilding, electrical engineering and electronics, which, as a rule, work in close industrial and economic cooperation with Swedish, Danish and other foreign partners, are becoming increasingly export-oriented.

The sectors of the “domestic market” include primarily the light and food (excluding fish processing) industries. These industries are experiencing increasing difficulties from year to year due to strong foreign competition. Norway's industry is very unevenly distributed. The vast majority of the country's industrial potential comes from enterprises in the southern regions - Östland, Sørland and Vestland, which account for 4/5 of all industrial output. Approximately 1/10 falls in the Friction-lag region. In the vast territory of Northern Norway, despite the construction of large state-owned enterprises there, currently no more than 1/10 of the country's industrial output is produced.

Almost 9/10 of Norway's industrial enterprises are concentrated in port cities. This facilitates and reduces the cost of delivery of raw materials and shipment of finished products.

One of the most important factors in the entire industrial development of Norway is its highly developed energy sector. It is based mainly on hydropower and liquid fuels. Until recent years, Norway was rightly considered a classic hydropower country. Ahead of all countries of Foreign Europe in hydropower reserves (120 billion kWh per year), it ranks first in the world in electricity production per capita. Almost all the electricity generated in the country comes from hydroelectric power plants with a total capacity of more than 18 million kW. Thanks to the numerous natural reservoir lakes on high plateaus, waterfalls and steep rivers, there is no need to build expensive dams, which greatly reduces the cost of electricity. In Norway, water resources are distributed relatively evenly throughout the country, which makes it possible to build powerful energy complexes in the Östland valleys, on the Telepark plateau, in the Vestland fjords and on the rapids of Northern Norway. All major power plants are connected by power lines into a single energy system, which in turn is connected to electrometallurgical and electrochemical enterprises and to all cities. Back in the mid-1970s, hydropower accounted for more than half of Norway's energy balance. About 2/5 of the generated electricity is consumed by industry, including 1/3 by metallurgy. In some years, excess electricity is transmitted to Denmark (via undersea cable) and Sweden. Coal plays a minor role in the country's energy balance. Its share, including about 0.5 million tons produced in Spitsbergen and approximately the same amount imported from abroad, does not exceed 3-4%. Of great importance for the country was the discovery of rich oil and gas fields Ekofisk on the shelf of the Norwegian sector of the North Sea (approximately 350 km southwest of Stavanger). as well as gas and oil - 200 km west of Bergen. In 1971, the first ton of oil was produced in the Ekofisk field, and in 1979 its production reached almost 40 million tons, which is four times the country’s current needs for liquid fuel. Norway was the first developed capitalist country to become a net exporter of oil. Oil from a whole complex of drilling platforms is supplied through a 335-kilometer pipeline to the coast of East Anglia, and the produced gas goes through pipes to the northern coast of Germany; gas has begun to be supplied from the Frigg field located west of Bergen to Scotland. The state-owned Sgatfjord fisheries (northwest of Bergen) are being exploited. The rapid development of oil and gas production has led to the rise of the oil refining and petrochemical industries. Monopoly capital is relying on the accelerated production of oil and gas, primarily for export to Western European countries. However, Norwegian authorities are trying to regulate the growth rate of oil and gas production. The extraction of metal raw materials: iron ore, titanium, molybdenum, copper, zinc, and pyrites has received significant development in Norway. The enriched iron ore from one of the world's northernmost mines, Sør-Varaiger, is sent through the neighboring port of Kirkenes to Western Europe and partly to the metallurgical plant in Mo i Rana. The Dundermann mine also supplies it with raw materials. In total, more than 4 million tons of iron concentrate are produced, half of which is exported. In the extraction of titanium ore from the Haugs mine in the Titania deposit on the southwestern coast of the country (about 1 million tons of ilmenite concentrate), Norway is one of the first places in the world; At the same time, almost all products are exported. The Kiaben molybdenum mine in the Serland Mountains is also one of the largest in the world. The extraction of copper and zinc ores is small - about 30 thousand tons of each per year. Pyrites, mainly mined in Trennelag (Lekken mine), are used to extract copper from them. Zinc and sulfuric acid production.

One of the characteristic features of the structure of Norwegian industry is the widespread development of electrometallurgy. The country occupies one of the leading places in the world in the production of aluminum, nickel, magnesium, and ferroalloys. In addition, a large amount of alloyed electric steel, zinc, and cobalt are smelted. For example, in the smelting of aluminum and nickel it is in 5th place, as well. It is second only to the United States in magnesium production. Ferroalloys, zinc and cobalt smelted in Norway are considered the highest quality in the world. The bulk of electrometallurgy products are made from imported raw materials and are almost entirely exported. Many electrometallurgical enterprises are located on the coast of the country - from the extreme south to the polar regions. With the development of powerful power transmission lines, the choice of where to build a plant is determined primarily by favorable conditions for the construction of berths for ships delivering raw materials and exporting finished products, as well as the availability of the necessary labor force. The country's only relatively large iron and steel plant (the northernmost in the world) was built by the state in the 50s in the polar town of Mu i Rana. It annually smelts up to 700 thousand tons of electric cast iron and up to 900 thousand tons of electric steel.

Mechanical engineering is a relatively young industry in Norway. In the post-war years, with the participation of foreign capital, large shipyards, factories for the production of offshore oil drilling platforms, hydraulic turbines, industrial and household electrical and electronic equipment, and production lines for the fish processing industry were created in Norway. Nowadays, all branches of mechanical engineering and metalworking employ more than 1/3 of the country's industrial workers and produce about 1/3 of gross industrial output, a significant part of which is exported. Norway also trades projects and licenses, in particular for offshore drilling platforms. The main centers of mechanical engineering are Oslo, Bergen, Stavanger, Drammen. The country's oldest industry - timber processing Norway was the first of the Northern European countries to begin widespread export of timber to Western Europe, primarily to Great Britain. However, predatory deforestation, especially in the western and southern regions of the country, sharply reduced their habitats. Due to growing competition from wood-rich Sweden and Finland, Norway gradually began to shift to the production of more valuable products - mechanical wood pulp, pulp, cardboard and paper. Pulp and paper production is one of the main sectors of the country's international production specialization. More than 1.5 million tons of wood pulp and cellulose and more than 1.3 million tons of various types of paper and cardboard are produced annually, the vast majority of which are exported. The main centers of sawmilling and pulp and paper production are located around the Oslo Fjord, usually at the mouths of timber rivers flowing down the forested slopes of Östland. These are primarily Sarpsborg, Halden, Mose, Drammen, Skien. Some enterprises are located directly in the logging areas - in the large valleys of Östland and in Trennelag.

The development of the modern chemical industry in Norway began at the beginning of the 20th century. in the province of Telemark electrochemical production These were the factories of the Norsh Hydro concern, which received electricity from a cascade of hydroelectric power stations, extracted nitrogen from the air and produced ammonia and its compounds, including the so-called Norwegian nitrate. Nowadays, the capacity of the concern's factories for the production of "bound nitrogen" exceeds half a million tons. As by-products, the concern's plant in Rjukan produces heavy water and noble gases - argon, neon, etc. Other electrochemical production includes the production of calcium carbide. In recent years, petrochemistry has been developing rapidly and, on its basis, the production of plastics and other synthetic materials.Petrochemical plants are located mainly in the coastal cities of Estland and on the west coast.

Agriculture

Agriculture is dominated by small farms (up to 10 hectares of land). Production and marketing cooperation is widespread. The leading industry is intensive livestock farming for meat and dairy production, as well as the plant growing that serves it (forage grasses). Sheep and pig breeding are developed. Cereals are cultivated (mainly barley and oats). About 40% of the population provides itself with agricultural products of its own production.

An important place in the economy is occupied by fishing, which is a branch of international specialization in Norway (it is the second largest exporter of fishery products in the world). Fish catch in 1985 amounted to 2.3 million tons. Forestry is important, since large tracts of coniferous forests have long been a source of prosperity for the countries of Northern Europe.

Norwegian agriculture is characterized by some vulnerability due to the difficult northern climatic conditions, so it requires constant government funding.

Population

There are two indigenous peoples in Norway - Norwegians, who make up 97% of the country's population (3,920 thousand), and the Sami (30 thousand).

The Norwegian language belongs to the Germanic group of the Indo-European family of languages. There are still two literary forms of it - riksmål (or bokmål) and lannsmål (or nynorsk). Norwegians live in forested and arable valleys and coastal areas. The traditional occupations of Norwegians are agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing, and currently they work in a wide variety of industries.

The Sami live in the mountains of northern and partly central Norway, in the forest-tundra and tundra. These people have preserved their national identity - their language and culture. The Sami language belongs to the Finno-Ugric group of the Uralic family of languages. There are schools and teachers' seminaries where they teach from textbooks in the Sami language, and there are Sami cultural and educational societies that strive to preserve the original culture of the most ancient people of Northern Europe. As a result of active religious activity in the Middle Ages by Christian missionaries, the Sami in Sweden, Norway and Finland adopted Lutheranism.

The traditional activities of the Sami are reindeer herding, fishing, and hunting. However, in modern Norway, only 6% of the Sami are engaged in reindeer husbandry. The rest of them go to work in mines, logging, and become farmers. They also make handicraft souvenirs. Increasingly, the Sami are settling in towns and cities. Only in the summer do reindeer herders lead a nomadic lifestyle and then live in frame tents or in cats.

National minorities that have long been naturalized include the Danes (about 15 thousand) and Swedes (about 8 thousand) who are related to the Norwegians in language. The Danes live in the cities of Estland, not forming compact communities, and the Swedes live mainly in the villages of Estland bordering Sweden.

Of the newcomers and naturalized foreign-language minorities, the earliest are the Kvens, or Norwegian Finns (20 thousand), apparently descendants of Finnish settlers of the early Middle Ages or, according to some sources, also from the 16th-17th centuries. Currently, they live in fishing villages and small towns in northern Norway - around the Varangerfjord, Porsangerfjord, Altafjord. Their occupations are fishing and working in the local, especially construction industry.

By religious affiliation, almost all believers in Norway are Protestants (Lutherans).

There are more than 50 thousand permanent or long-term foreigners living in Norwegian cities, many of whom have retained their nationality. These are emigrants from economically highly developed and developing countries who came to Norway after the war in search of work.

Emigrants from England (8 thousand), Iceland (1 thousand) and the USA (11 thousand) are predominantly highly qualified specialists. They communicate with Norwegians in English or have mastered the Norwegian language, rarely maintain compatriot contacts in Norway, and therefore do not constitute compact national minorities.

The situation is different with emigrants from developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America, mainly low-skilled workers. Emigrants from these countries have retained their language and religion, which contributes to the unification of each ethnic minority into a separate community. Even with a non-compact settlement, they maintain family and other compatriot ties within each ethnic group.

In Norway, within its current borders, at the first census in 1769, 723 thousand people lived. With a fairly high birth rate, there was also a very high mortality rate, so the natural increase was only 9 people per 1 thousand inhabitants per year. - 45 years later, after the formation of a national state within the framework of a personal union with Sweden, Norway began to pick up the pace of economic development. By 1825, slightly more than 1 million people lived in the country. From 1860 - 70 A rapid process of capitalist development began in the countryside and city, workers began to be freed up, rural residents headed to the city to look for work. Those who did not find it in the city went abroad, mainly to the USA and Canada. From 1836 to 1915, about 750 thousand people emigrated. Despite emigration, it’s good. Due to a fairly high birth rate at the beginning and middle of the 19th century, the country's population reached 2 million people by 1890, i.e., almost doubled. The ebb of emigrants led at the end of the 19th century. to a slight drop in the birth rate with a still very high mortality rate. As a result of such a long emigration outside Norway, by the beginning of the World Wars there were over 1 million people of Norwegian origin. Nevertheless, thanks to natural growth, the population of Norway reached 3 million people by the early 1940s. After the war, the mortality rate dropped sharply, but at the same time the birth rate also fell. If the average annual natural increase before 1960 was from 8 to 12 people per 1 thousand, then by 1978 it dropped to 7 people. The gender ratio has leveled out. In 1976, Norway's population exceeded 4 million people. Now it is about 4.3 million people.

Almost a third of Norway's economically active population is employed in industry. Just over 1/10 of the economically active population works in fishing, agriculture and forestry. The share of people employed in transport, especially in the navy, is relatively large. Norwegians are considered the most seaworthy nation in the world. Employment in the service sector is growing every year, where almost half of the economically active population works.

The majority of the country's economically active population consists of unionized workers. The Norwegian Central Association of Trade Unions (CNTU) has 600 thousand members.

At the top of the social ladder is a financial oligarchy, whose representatives occupy leadership positions in industry and shipping.

Norway is one of the sparsely populated countries in Europe. The average population density here is 12.8 people per 1 sq. km. The most densely populated area is the southeastern part of Norway - Östland. Here, on 1/3 of the country's territory, along large valleys converging to the Oslofjord, half of Norway's population lives. Its density reaches 50 people per 1 square. km,

At the same time, the plateaus of southern Norway are almost deserted. The northern part of Norway is very sparsely populated, occupying about half the country's area. 10% of the population lives here. Its average density in the north is less than one person per 1 sq. km. The population is concentrated in coastal cities and towns. In the summer, the Sami roam the mountains with herds of reindeer. Between the southern and northern parts of Norway there is a low area around the Tronnheimsfjord, where the average density reaches 4-5 people per 1 sq. km. Norway was a peasant country in the past. In 1890, the rural population was over 70% and the urban population was just over 20%. By the end, since the 1970s, the share of city residents has tripled. Now the share of the urban population in Norway is 78%.

A city in Norway is considered to be a densely populated area in which the distance between houses is no more than 50 m, where at least 3/4 of the economically active population is employed in all “urban sectors of the economy” (i.e. in any non-forestry and non-agricultural work), and where the number of inhabitants at least 2 thousand. Small towns are typical for Norway. There are 532 urban settlements, and only 32 of them have more than 10 thousand inhabitants. The most populated Norwegian cities are the capital of the country Oslo (720 thousand inhabitants), Bergen and Trondheim. Most Norwegian cities are located on the sea coast. Only a few small towns are found in the Estland valleys.

The rural population lives either on farms or in small fishing villages. Rural residents often combine work on their plots with fishing or with work at enterprises in a nearby city.

Norway stands out for its equal participation of women in all spheres of public life. Thus, almost half of the country’s parliament is women.

Transport

Shipping plays a leading role in both internal and external transport links. This is explained by the specific geolocation, the highly rugged coastline combined with mountainous terrain and the historical seafaring skills of the Norwegians. 9/10 of foreign trade and more than 1/2 of domestic cargo turnover are carried by sea. Norway is one of the leading shipping powers in the world. In terms of merchant fleet tonnage, it ranks 5th.

After the Second World War, when the badly damaged Norwegian fleet was restored and modernized with the help of foreign, primarily American, loans, a dominant position in it was taken by monopolistic concerns that own entire fleets of motor ships and turbo ships and service lines encircling the entire globe. Such are, for example, the Wilhelmsen, Olsen, and Bergen Shipping Company concerns. The Norwegian fleet is distinguished by its large share of tankers, which make up more than half of the total tonnage. It is an important source of foreign currency to cover the usually deficit trade balance. More than 80% of the Norwegian The fleet is busy transporting goods between foreign ports, which brings the country several billion crowns of foreign currency per year. More than 50 million tons of various cargo pass through Norwegian seaports every year. About half of this is iron ore in transit from Sweden, which is exported through the port of Narvik. other major ports are Oslo, Bergen, Stavanger.

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NORWAY
The Kingdom of Norway is a state in Northern Europe, in the western part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. It ranks second in size (after Sweden) among the Scandinavian countries. Norway is called the land of the midnight sun because 1/3 of the country lies north of the Arctic Circle, where the sun barely sets below the horizon from May to July. In the middle of winter, in the far north the polar night lasts almost around the clock, while in the south daylight lasts only a few hours.

Norway. The capital is Oslo. Population - 4418 thousand people (1998). Population density - 13.6 people per 1 sq. km. Urban population - 73%, rural - 27%. Area (including the polar islands) - 387 thousand square meters. km. Highest point: Mount Gallhepiggen (2469 m). Official language: Norwegian (Riksmål, or Bokmål; and Lansmål, or Nynoshk). State religion: Lutheranism. Administrative division: 19th county. Currency: Norwegian krone = 100 øre. National holiday: Constitution Day - May 17. National anthem: "Yes, we love this country."

Norway is a country of picturesque landscapes, with jagged mountain ranges, glacially carved valleys and narrow fjords with steep banks. The beauty of this country inspired the composer Edvard Grieg, who tried to convey in his works the changes in mood inspired by the alternation of light and dark seasons of the year. Norway has long been a seafaring country, and most of its population is concentrated on the coast. The Vikings, skilled sailors who created a vast system of overseas trade, ventured across the Atlantic Ocean and reached the New World ca. 1000 AD In the modern era, the role of the sea in the life of the country is evidenced by the huge merchant fleet, which ranked sixth in the world in terms of total tonnage in 1997, as well as the developed fish processing industry. Norway is a hereditary democratic constitutional monarchy. It gained state independence only in 1905. Before that, it was ruled first by Denmark and then by Sweden. The union with Denmark lasted from 1397 to 1814, when Norway passed to Sweden. The area of mainland Norway is 324 thousand square meters. km. The length of the country is 1770 km - from Cape Linnesnes in the south to the North Cape in the north, and its width ranges from 6 to 435 km. The country's shores are washed by the Atlantic Ocean in the west, the Skagerrak in the south and the Arctic Ocean in the north. The total length of the coastline is 3,420 km, and including the fjords - 21,465 km. In the east, Norway borders with Russia (border length 196 km), Finland (720 km) and Sweden (1660 km). Overseas possessions include the Spitsbergen archipelago, consisting of nine large islands (the largest of them is Western Spitsbergen) with a total area of 63 thousand square meters. km in the Arctic Ocean; Jan Mayen Island with an area of 380 square meters. km in the North Atlantic Ocean between Norway and Greenland; small islands of Bouvet and Peter I in Antarctica. Norway claims Queen Maud Land in Antarctica.
NATURE
Surface structure. Norway occupies the western, mountainous part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. This is a large block, composed mainly of granites and gneisses and characterized by rugged relief. The block is asymmetrically raised to the west, as a result the eastern slopes (mainly in Sweden) are flatter and longer, while the western slopes, facing the Atlantic Ocean, are very steep and short. In the south, within Norway, both slopes are represented, and between them there is a vast highland. To the north of the border of Norway and Finland, only a few peaks rise above 1200 m, but towards the south the heights of the mountains gradually increase, reaching maximum heights of 2469 m (Mount Gallheppigen) and 2452 m (Mount Glittertinn) in the Jotunheimen massif. Other elevated areas of the highlands are only slightly inferior in height. These include Dovrefjell, Ronnan, Hardangervidda and Finnmarksvidda. Bare rocks, devoid of soil and vegetation cover, are often exposed there. Externally, the surface of many highlands more closely resembles slightly undulating plateaus, and such areas are called “vidda”. During the Great Ice Age, glaciation developed in the mountains of Norway, but modern glaciers are small. The largest of these are Jostedalsbre (the largest glacier in Europe) in the Jotunheimen mountains, Svartisen in north-central Norway and Folgefonny in the Hardangervidda area. The small Engabre glacier, located at 70° N, approaches the shore of the Kvänangenfjord, where small icebergs calve at the end of the glacier. However, usually the snow line in Norway is located at altitudes of 900-1500 m. Many features of the country's topography were formed during the Ice Age. There were probably several continental glaciations at that time, and each of them contributed to the development of glacial erosion, the deepening and straightening of ancient river valleys and their transformation into picturesque steep U-shaped troughs, deeply cutting through the surface of the highlands. After the melting of continental glaciation, the lower reaches of the ancient valleys were flooded, where fjords were formed. The fjord shores amaze with their extraordinary picturesqueness and are of very important economic importance. Many fjords are very deep. For example, the Sognefjord, located 72 km north of Bergen, reaches a depth of 1308 m in the lower part. The chain of coastal islands is the so-called. Skergaard (in Russian literature the Swedish term skjergård is more often used) protects the fjords from strong westerly winds blowing from the Atlantic Ocean. Some islands are exposed rocks washed by the surf, others reach significant sizes. Most Norwegians live on the shores of fjords. The most significant are the Oslofjord, Hardangerfjord, Sognefjord, Nordfjord, Storfjord and Tronnheimsfjord. The main occupations of the population are fishing in the fjords, agriculture, animal husbandry and forestry in some places along the shores of the fjords and in the mountains. In the fjord areas, industry is little developed, except for individual manufacturing enterprises that use rich hydropower resources. In many areas of the country, bedrock comes to the surface.

Rivers and lakes. Eastern Norway has the largest rivers, including the 591 km long Glomma. In the west of the country the rivers are short and fast. Southern Norway has many picturesque lakes. The largest lake in the country is Mjesa, with an area of 390 square meters. km located in the southeast. At the end of the 19th century. Several small canals were built connecting the lakes with seaports on the southern coast, but they are currently little used. The hydropower resources of Norway's rivers and lakes make a significant contribution to its economic potential.
Climate. Despite its northern location, Norway has a favorable climate with cool summers and relatively mild (for the corresponding latitudes) winters - the result of the influence of the Gulf Stream. The average annual precipitation varies from 3330 mm in the west, where moisture-carrying winds primarily receive moisture, to 250 mm in some isolated river valleys in the east of the country. The average January temperature is 0°C typical for the southern and western coasts, while in the interior regions it drops to -4°C or less. In July, average temperatures on the coast are approx. 14° C, and in inland areas - approx. 16°C, but there are also higher temperatures.
Soils, flora and fauna. Fertile soils cover only 4% of the entire territory of Norway and are concentrated mainly in the vicinity of Oslo and Trondheim. Since most of the country is covered by mountains, plateaus and glaciers, opportunities for plant growth and development are limited. There are five geobotanical regions: a treeless coastal region with meadows and shrubs, to the east of it deciduous forests, further inland and to the north - coniferous forests, above and even further to the north a belt of dwarf birches, willows and perennial grasses; finally, at the highest altitudes there is a belt of grasses, mosses and lichens. Coniferous forests are one of Norway's most important natural resources and provide a variety of export products. Reindeer, lemmings, arctic foxes and eiders are commonly found in the Arctic region. In the forests to the very south of the country there are ermine, hare, elk, fox, squirrel and - in small numbers - wolf and brown bear. Red deer are common along the south coast.
POPULATION
Demography. Norway's population is small and growing slowly. In 1998, 4,418 thousand people lived in the country. In 1996, per 1 thousand people, the birth rate was 13.9, the death rate was 10, and population growth was 0.52%. This figure is higher than natural population growth due to immigration, which in the 1990s reached 8-10 thousand people per year. Improved health care and rising living standards have ensured continued, albeit slow, population growth over the past two generations. Norway, along with Sweden, is characterized by record low infant mortality rates - 4.0 per 1000 births (1995) versus 7.5 in the USA. In the late 1990s, life expectancy for men was 74.8 years and for women 80.8 years. Although Norway's divorce rate was inferior to some of its neighboring Nordic countries, the rate rose after 1945, and in the mid-1990s approximately half of all marriages ended in divorce (as in the United States and Sweden). 48% of children born in Norway in 1996 were out of wedlock. After restrictions introduced in 1973, immigration was directed to Norway for some time mainly from Scandinavian countries, but after 1978 a significant layer of people of Asian origin appeared (about 50 thousand people). In the 1980s and 1990s, Norway accepted refugees from Pakistan, African countries and the republics of the former Yugoslavia.
Population density and distribution. Apart from Iceland, Norway is the least populated country in Europe. In addition, the distribution of the population is extremely uneven. The capital of the country, Oslo, is home to 495 thousand people (1997), and approximately a third of the country's population is concentrated in the Oslo Fjord area. Other large cities - Bergen (224 thousand), Trondheim (145 thousand), Stavanger (106 thousand), Bærum (98 thousand), Kristiansand (70 thousand), Fredrikstad (66 thousand), Tromso (57 thousand .) and Drammen (53 thousand). The capital city is located at the top of the Oslofjord, where ocean-going ships moor near the town hall. Bergen also enjoys an advantageous position at the top of the fjord. The tomb of the kings of ancient Norway is located in Trondheim, founded in 997 AD, famous for its cathedral and Viking Age sites. It is noteworthy that almost all large cities are located either on the shores of the sea or fjord, or close to them. The strip, confined to the winding coastline, has always been attractive for settlements due to its access to the sea and moderate climatic conditions. With the exception of large valleys in the east and some areas in the west of the central highlands, all the interior highlands are sparsely populated. However, certain areas in certain seasons are visited by hunters, Sami nomads with herds of reindeer, or Norwegian farmers grazing their cattle there. After the construction of new and reconstruction of old roads, as well as with the opening of air traffic, some mountainous areas became accessible for permanent residence. The main occupations of residents of such remote areas are mining, maintenance of hydroelectric power stations and tourists. Farmers and fishermen live in small settlements scattered along the banks of fjords or river valleys. Farming in higher areas is difficult, and many small, marginal farms there have been abandoned. Not counting Oslo and its environs, the population density ranges from 93 people per 1 sq. km in Vestfold southwest of Oslo up to 1.5 people per 1 sq. km in Finnmark in the far north of the country. Approximately one in four people in Norway live in rural areas.

Ethnography and language. Norwegians are an extremely homogeneous people of Germanic origin. A special ethnic group is the Sami, who number approx. 20 thousand. They have lived in the far north for at least 2 thousand years, and some of them still lead a nomadic lifestyle. Despite Norway's ethnic homogeneity, two forms of the Norwegian language are clearly distinguishable. Bokmål, or the book language (or Riksmål - the official language), used by most Norwegians, is descended from the Danish-Norwegian language, common among educated people during the time when Norway was under Danish rule (1397-1814). Nynoshk, or New Norwegian language (otherwise called Lansmol - rural language), received formal recognition in the 19th century. It was created by linguist I. Osen on the basis of rural, mainly Western, dialects with an admixture of elements of the medieval Old Norse language. About a fifth of all schoolchildren voluntarily choose to study as a nurse. This language is widely used in rural areas in the west of the country. Currently, there is a tendency to merge both languages into a single one - the so-called. Samnoshk.
Religion. The Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran Church, which has state status, is under the supervision of the Ministry of Education, Science and Religion and includes 11 dioceses. By law, the king and at least half of all ministers must be Lutheran, although changing this provision is being discussed. Church councils play a very active role in the life of parishes, especially in the west and south of the country. The Norwegian Church supported many public activities and equipped important missions to Africa and India. In terms of the number of missionaries in relation to population, Norway probably ranks first in the world. Since 1938, women have been granted the right to be priests. The first woman was appointed priest in 1961. The vast majority of Norwegians (86%) belong to the state church. Church ceremonies such as the baptism of children, confirmation of teenagers and funeral services for the dead are widespread. Daily radio broadcasts on religious topics attract large audiences. However, only 2% of the population attend church regularly. Despite the state status of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, Norwegians enjoy complete freedom of religion. According to a law adopted in 1969, the state provides financial support to other officially registered churches and religious organizations. In 1996, the most numerous of them were Pentecostals (43.7 thousand), Lutheran Free Church (20.6 thousand), United Methodist Church (42.5 thousand), Baptists (10.8 thousand), Jehovah's Witnesses denominations (15.1 thousand) and Seventh-day Adventists (6.3 thousand), Missionary Union (8 thousand), as well as Muslims (46.5 thousand), Catholics (36.5 thousand) and Jews (1 thousand).
STATE AND POLITICAL STRUCTURE
State structure. Norway is a constitutional monarchy. The king is the liaison between the three branches of government. The monarchy is hereditary, and since 1990 the throne has passed to the eldest son or daughter, although Princess Mertha Louise made an exception to this rule. Officially, the king makes all political appointments, is present at all ceremonies, and presides (along with the crown prince) in formal weekly meetings of the Council of State (government). Executive power is vested in the prime minister, who acts on behalf of the king. The Cabinet of Ministers consists of the Prime Minister and 16 ministers heading the relevant departments. The government bears collective responsibility for its policies, although each minister has the right to publicly disagree on a particular issue. Cabinet members are approved by the majority party or coalition in parliament - the Storting. They can participate in parliamentary debates, but do not have the right to vote. Civil servant posts are awarded after passing competitive examinations.
Legislative power belongs to the Storting, consisting of 165 members elected for four-year terms on party lists in each of the 19 regions (fylke). A deputy is elected for each member of the Storting. Thus, there is always a replacement for absent members and members of the Storting who are included in the government. In Norway, all citizens who have reached the age of 18 and have lived in the country for at least five years have the right to vote. To be nominated to the Storting, citizens must have resided in Norway for at least 10 years and be domiciled in the given constituency at the time of the election. After the elections, the Storting is divided into two chambers - the Lagting (41 deputies) and the Odelsting (124 deputies). Formal bills (as opposed to resolutions) must be discussed and voted on by both houses separately, but if there is a difference of opinion, a 2/3 majority in a joint session of the chambers must be required to pass the bill. However, most cases are decided at meetings of commissions, the composition of which is appointed depending on the representation of parties. The Lagting also holds meetings in conjunction with the Supreme Court to discuss impeachment proceedings against any government official at the Odelsting. Minor complaints against the government are reviewed by the Storting's special commissioner, the Ombudsman. Constitutional amendments require approval by a 2/3 majority at two consecutive meetings of the Storting.

Judicial system. The Supreme Court (Hyesterett) consists of five judges who hear appeals in civil and criminal cases from five regional courts of appeal (Lagmannsrett). The latter, consisting of three judges each, simultaneously serve as courts of first instance in more serious criminal cases. At a lower level is the city or county court, headed by a professional judge, assisted by two lay assistants. Each city also has an arbitration council (forliksrd), consisting of three citizens elected by the local council to mediate local disputes.
Local control. The territory of Norway is divided into 19 regions (fylkes), one of which is the city of Oslo. These areas are divided into urban and rural districts (communes). Each of them has a council, whose members are elected for a term of four years. Above the district councils is the regional council, which is directly elected. Local governments have large funds and have the right to independently tax themselves. These funds are allocated to education, health and social welfare, as well as infrastructure development. However, the police are subordinate to the state Department of Justice, and some authorities are concentrated at the regional level. In 1969, the Union of Norwegian Sami was organized, and in 1989 the parliamentary assembly of this people (Sameting) was elected. The Svalbard archipelago is governed by a governor located there. Political parties play an important role in Norway's domestic affairs and foreign policy. The public prefers to seriously discuss political problems rather than find out the positions of different figures. The media pays great attention to party platforms, and lengthy discussions often erupt, although they rarely lead to clashes and emotional conflicts. From the 1930s to 1965, the government was controlled by the Norwegian Labor Party (NLP), which remained the largest party in the Storting into the 1990s. The CHP formed the government in 1971-1981, 1986-1989 and 1990-1997. In 1981, Gro Harlem Brundtland became the first woman to serve as prime minister and, with several interruptions, led the country until 1996. In addition to her leading role in Norwegian political life, Brundtland also occupied prominent positions in world politics. She lost her post to CHP chairman Thorbjørn Jagland, who ruled from October 1996 to October 1997. In the 1997 elections, the CHP won only 65 of 165 seats in the Storting, and its representatives were not included in the new government. The government is formed by four centrist and right-wing parties - the Christian People's Party (CHP), the conservative Heire and the liberal Venstre. The CHP enjoys the greatest influence in the western and southern regions of the country, where the position of the Lutheran Church is especially strong. This party opposes abortion and frivolous morals, and actively supports social programs. The HNP came in second place in the September 1997 elections, winning 25 seats in the Storting. HPP leader Kjell Magne Bundevik led a centrist minority coalition government in October 1997. From 1945 to 1993, Kheire's party was the second most important and formed coalition governments of center and right parties several times in the 1980s. It defends the interests of private enterprise, supports the spirit of competition and Norway's entry into the EU, but at the same time adopts an extensive program for the social improvement of the country. The party has support primarily in Oslo and other large cities. She briefly led the center-right coalition when its leader Jan P. Susse was prime minister in 1989-1990, who then went into opposition. Heyre won 23 seats in the Storting in the September 1997 elections. The Center Party strengthened its position in the 1990s by opposing Norway's entry into the EU. Traditionally, it represents the interests of wealthy farmers and those employed in the fishery industry, i.e. residents of rural areas receiving significant government subsidies. This party won 11 seats in the Storting in the 1997 elections. Finally, the liberal Ventre Party, founded in 1884, which introduced parliamentary democracy in Norway a century ago, experienced a split after debates on European politics in 1973 and then lost representation in parliament. In 1997, only six members of the renewed Liberal Party won the elections. The right-wing populist Progress Party, which took second place in the 1997 elections, advocates cuts in social programs and opposes immigration, high taxes and bureaucracy. In 1997 it set a record by winning 25 seats in the Storting, but was sharply criticized by other parties for its overtly nationalistic speeches and hostility towards immigrants. The influence of the extreme left parties weakened after the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe, but the Socialist Left Party (SLP) gathered approx. 10% of votes. She supports state control over the economy and planning, puts forward demands for environmental protection and opposes Norway's entry into the EU. In the 1997 elections, the SLP won nine seats in the Storting.
Armed forces. Under the long-standing law of universal conscription, all men between the ages of 19 and 45 must serve 6 to 12 months in the Army or 15 months in the Navy or Air Force. The army, which has five regional divisions, has a peacetime strength of approx. 14 thousand military personnel and is located mainly in the north of the country. Local defense forces (83 thousand people) are trained to perform special tasks in certain areas. The navy has 4 patrol ships, 12 submarines and 28 small vessels for coastal patrol. In 1997, the contingent of military sailors numbered 4.4 thousand. In the same year, the air force included 3.7 thousand personnel, 80 fighter aircraft, as well as transport aircraft, helicopters, communications equipment and training units. The Nika missile defense system has been created in the Oslo area. The Norwegian Armed Forces take part in UN peacekeeping missions. The number of reserve soldiers and officers is 230 thousand. Defense expenditures amount to 2.3% of GDP.
Foreign policy. Norway is a small country that, due to its geographical location and dependence on world trade, actively participates in international life. Since 1949, the main political parties have supported Norway's participation in NATO. Scandinavian cooperation was strengthened by participation in the Nordic Council (this organization stimulates the cultural community of the Scandinavian countries and ensures mutual respect for the rights of their citizens), as well as efforts to create the Scandinavian Customs Union. Norway assisted in the creation of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and has been a member of it since 1960, and is also a member of the Organization for Economic Development and Cooperation. In 1962, the Norwegian government applied to join the European Common Market and in 1972 agreed to the terms of admission to this organization. However, in a referendum held that year, Norwegians opposed participation in the common market. In a referendum in 1994, the population did not agree with Norway joining the EU, while its neighbors and partners Finland and Sweden joined this union.
ECONOMY
In the 19th century Most Norwegians were employed in agriculture, forestry and fishing. In the 20th century Agriculture was replaced by new industries based on the use of cheap water power and raw materials coming from farms and forests and extracted from the seas and mines. The merchant fleet played a decisive role in the growth of the country's prosperity. Since the 1970s, oil and gas production on the North Sea shelf has developed rapidly, which has made Norway the largest supplier of these products to the Western European market and second place in the world (after Saudi Arabia) in supplies to the world market.
Gross domestic product. In terms of per capita income, Norway is one of the richest countries in the world. In 1996, gross domestic product (GDP), i.e. the total value of market goods and services was estimated at $157.8 billion, or $36,020 per capita, and purchasing power at $11,593 per capita. In 1996, agriculture and fishing accounted for 2.2% of GDP, compared to 2% in Sweden (1994) and 1.7% in the USA (1993). The share of the extractive industry (thanks to oil production in the North Sea) and construction was approx. 30% of GDP compared to 25% in Sweden. Approximately 25% of GDP was allocated to government spending (in Sweden 26%, in Denmark 25%). In Norway, an unusually high share of GDP (20.5%) was allocated to capital investment (in Sweden 15%, in the USA 18%). As in other Scandinavian countries, a relatively small share of GDP (50%) goes to personal consumption (in Denmark - 54%, in the USA - 67%).
Economical geography. There are five economic regions in Norway: East (historical province of Östland), South (Särland), South-West (Westland), Central (Trennelag) and North (Noor-Norge). The Eastern region (Ostland) is characterized by long river valleys, descending to the south and converging on the Oslofjord, and inland areas occupied by forests and tundra. The latter occupies high plateaus between large valleys. About half of the country's forest resources are concentrated in this area. Almost half of the country's population lives in the valleys and on both banks of the Oslofjord. This is the most economically developed part of Norway. The city of Oslo has a wide range of industrial sectors, including metallurgy, mechanical engineering, flour milling, printing, and almost all textile industries. Oslo is a shipbuilding center. The Oslo region accounts for approximately 1/5 of all industrial employment in the country. South-east of Oslo, where the Glomma River flows into the Skagerrak, lies the city of Sarpsborg, the country's second largest industrial center. The Skagerrak is home to sawmills and pulp and paper industries that use local raw materials. For this purpose, the forest resources of the Glomma River basin are used. On the western shore of the Oslofjord, southwest of Oslo, there are cities whose industries are related to the sea and seafood processing. This is the shipbuilding center of Tønsberg and the former base of the Norwegian whaling fleet Sandefjord. Noshk Hydru, the country's second-largest industrial concern, produces nitrogen fertilizers and other chemicals at a huge plant in Hereya. Drammen, located on the shores of the western branch of the Oslofjord, is a center for processing wood coming from the forests of Hallingdal. The southern region (Serland), open to the Skagerrak, is economically the least developed. A third of the area is covered in forests and was once an important timber trading center. At the end of the 19th century. There was a significant outflow of population from this territory. Currently, the population is largely concentrated in a chain of small coastal towns that are popular summer resorts. The main industrial enterprises are the metallurgical plants in Kristiansand, producing copper and nickel. About a quarter of the country's population is concentrated in the Southwestern region (Westland). Between Stavanger and Kristiansund, 12 large fjords extend inland and the heavily dissected shores are lined with thousands of islands. Agricultural development is limited by the mountainous terrain of fjords and rocky islands bordered by steep high banks, where glaciers in the past have removed the cover of loose sediments. Agriculture is confined to river valleys and terraced areas along the fjords. In these places, in a maritime climate, rich pastures are common, and in some coastal areas - orchards. Vestland ranks first in the country in terms of the length of the growing season. The ports of southwestern Norway, particularly Ålesund, serve as bases for the winter herring fishery. Metallurgical and chemical plants are scattered throughout the region, often in secluded places on the shores of fjords, using rich hydropower resources and year-round ice-free ports. Bergen is the main center of the area's manufacturing industry. In this city and neighboring villages there are engineering, flour-grinding and textile enterprises. Since the 1970s, Stavanger, Sandnes and Sula have been the main centers from which the North Sea offshore oil and gas production infrastructure is maintained and where oil refineries are located. The fourth most important of Norway's major economic regions is West Central (Trennelag), adjacent to the Trondheimsfjord, with its center in Trondheim. The relatively flat surface and fertile soils on marine clays favored the development of agriculture, which turned out to be competitive with agriculture in the Oslofjord region. A quarter of the territory is covered with forests. In the area under consideration, deposits of valuable minerals are being developed, especially copper ores and pyrites (Lekken - since 1665, Volldal, etc.). The northern region (Nur-Norge) is located mostly north of the Arctic Circle. Although it does not have the large timber and hydropower reserves of northern Sweden and Finland, the shelf area contains some of the richest fisheries in the Northern Hemisphere. The coastline is long. Fishing, the oldest occupation of the population in the north, is still widespread, but the mining industry is becoming increasingly important. Northern Norway occupies a leading position in the country in the development of this industry. Iron ore deposits are being developed, particularly in Kirkenes near the Russian border. There are significant deposits of iron ore in Rana near the Arctic Circle. The mining of these ores and the work at the metallurgical plant at Mo i Rana attracted settlers to the area from other parts of the country, but the population of the entire Northern region does not exceed the population of Oslo.
Agriculture. As in other Scandinavian countries, in Norway the share of agriculture in the economy has declined due to the development of the manufacturing industry. In 1996, agriculture and forestry employed 5.2% of the country's working population, and these sectors accounted for only 2.2% of total output. The natural conditions of Norway - high latitude and short growing season, poor soils, abundant rainfall and cool summers - greatly complicate the development of agriculture. As a result, mainly fodder crops are grown and dairy products are of great importance. In 1996, approx. 3% of the total area. 49% of agricultural land was used for hayfields and forage crops, 38% for cereals or legumes, and 11% for pastures. Barley, oats, potatoes and wheat are the main food crops. In addition, every fourth Norwegian family cultivates its own plot. Agriculture in Norway is a low-profit sector of the economy, which is in an extremely difficult situation, despite subsidies provided to support peasant farms in remote areas and expand the country's food supply from internal resources. The country has to import most of the food it consumes. Many farmers produce agricultural products in quantities only sufficient to meet family needs. Additional income comes from working in fishing or forestry. Despite objective difficulties, wheat production in Norway increased significantly, which in 1996 reached 645 thousand tons (in 1970 - only 12 thousand tons, and in 1987 - 249 thousand tons). After 1950, many small farms were abandoned or acquired by large landowners. In the period 1949-1987, 56 thousand farms ceased to exist, and by 1995 another 15 thousand. However, despite the concentration and mechanization of agriculture, 82.6% of Norwegian peasant farms in 1995 had land plots of less than 20 hectares (average plot 10 .2 hectares) and only 1.4% - over 50 hectares. The seasonal movement of livestock, particularly sheep, to mountain pastures ceased after the Second World War. Mountain pastures and temporary settlements (seters), used only for a few weeks in the summer, were now no longer needed, as the collection of fodder crops in the fields around permanent settlements increased. Fishing has long been a source of wealth for the country. In 1995 Norway ranked tenth in the world in fisheries development, while in 1975 it held fifth place. The total fish catch in 1995 was 2.81 million tons, or 15% of the total European catch. Fish exports for Norway are a source of foreign exchange earnings: in 1996, 2.5 million tons of fish, fishmeal and fish oil were exported for a total of $4.26 million. The coastal banks near Ålesund are the main herring fishing area. Due to overfishing, herring production fell sharply from the late 1960s to 1979, but then began to rise again and in the late 1990s was well above 1960s levels. Herring is the main fishery object. In 1996, 760.7 thousand tons of herring were harvested. In the 1970s, artificial salmon farming began, mainly off the southwestern coast of the country. In this new industry, Norway occupies a leading position in the world: in 1996, 330 thousand tons were produced - three times more than in Great Britain, which is Norway's competitor. Cod and shrimp are also valuable components of the catch. Cod fishing areas are concentrated in the north, off the coast of Finnmark, as well as in the fjords of the Lofoten Islands. In February-March, cod enters these more sheltered waters to spawn. Most fishermen fish for cod using small family boats and spend the rest of the year farming on farms scattered along Norway's coastline. Cod fishing areas around the Lofoten Islands are assessed according to established traditions depending on boat size, type of net, location and duration of fishing. Most of the cod catch is supplied fresh frozen to the Western European market. Dried and salted cod is sold mainly to countries in West Africa, Latin America and the Mediterranean. Norway was once the world's leading whaling power. In the 1930s, its whaling fleet in Antarctic waters supplied the market with 2/3 of the world's production. However, reckless fishing soon led to a sharp decline in the number of large whales. In the 1960s, whaling in Antarctica ceased. In the mid-1970s, there were no whaling vessels left in the Norwegian fishing fleet. However, fishermen are still killing small whales. The annual slaughter of approximately 250 whales caused significant international friction in the late 1980s, but as a member of the International Whale Commission, Norway stubbornly rejected all attempts to ban whaling. It also ignored the 1992 International Convention on the End of Whaling.
Extractive industry. The Norwegian sector of the North Sea contains large reserves of oil and natural gas. According to 1997 estimates, industrial oil reserves in this area were estimated at 1.5 billion tons, and gas reserves at 765 billion cubic meters. m. 3/4 of the total oil reserves and fields in Western Europe are concentrated here. Norway is ranked 11th in the world in terms of oil reserves. The Norwegian sector of the North Sea contains half of all gas reserves in Western Europe, and Norway holds 10th place in the world in this regard. Prospective oil reserves reach 16.8 billion tons, and gas reserves - 47.7 trillion. cube m. More than 17 thousand Norwegians are engaged in oil production. The presence of large oil reserves has been established in Norwegian waters north of the Arctic Circle. Oil production in 1996 exceeded 175 million tons, and natural gas production in 1995 - 28 billion cubic meters. m. The main fields being developed are Ekofisk, Sleipner and Thor-Valhall to the southwest of Stavanger and Troll, Useberg, Gullfaks, Frigg, Statfjord and Murchison to the west of Bergen, as well as Dreugen and Haltenbakken further to the north. Oil production began at the Ekofisk field in 1971 and increased throughout the 1980s and 1990s. In the late 1990s, rich new deposits of Heidrun near the Arctic Circle and Baller were discovered. In 1997, North Sea oil production was three times higher than 10 years earlier, and its further growth was limited only by falling demand on the world market. 90% of the oil produced is exported. Norway began producing gas in 1978 from the Frigg field, half of which is located in British territorial waters. Pipelines have been laid from Norwegian fields to the UK and Western European countries. The development of the fields is carried out by the state company Statoil together with foreign and private Norwegian oil companies. With the exception of fuel resources, Norway has few mineral reserves. The main metal resource is iron ore. In 1995 Norway produced 1.3 million tonnes of iron ore concentrate, mainly from the Sør-Varangägr mines in Kirkenes near the Russian border. Another large mine in the Rana region supplies the nearby large steel mill in the city of Mu. Copper is mined mainly in the far north. In 1995, 7.4 thousand tons of copper were mined. In the north there are also deposits of pyrites, used to extract sulfur compounds for the chemical industry. Several hundred thousand tons of pyrites were mined annually until this production was curtailed in the early 1990s. The largest ilmenite deposit in Europe is located in Tellnes in Southern Norway. Ilmenite is a source of titanium oxide used in the production of dyes and plastics. In 1996, 758.7 thousand tons of ilmenite were mined in Norway. Norway produces significant amounts of titanium (708 thousand tons), a metal of increasing importance, zinc (41.4 thousand tons) and lead (7.2 thousand tons), as well as small amounts of gold and silver. The most important non-metallic minerals are cement raw materials and limestone. In Norway in 1996, 1.6 million tons of cement raw materials were produced. Development of deposits of building stone, including granite and marble, is also underway.
Forestry. A quarter of Norway's territory - 8.3 million hectares - is covered with forests. The densest forests are in the east, where logging mainly takes place. Over 9 million cubic meters are being prepared. m of wood per year. Spruce and pine have the greatest commercial value. The logging season usually falls between November and April. The 1950s and 1960s saw rapid growth in mechanization, and by 1970 less than 1% of all employed people in the country received income from forestry. 2/3 of the forests are private property, but all forested areas are under strict government supervision. As a result of unsystematic logging, the area of overmature forests has increased. In 1960, an extensive reforestation program began to expand the area of productive forests in the sparsely populated areas of the north and west as far as the Vestland fjords.
Energy. Energy consumption in Norway in 1994 amounted to 23.1 million tons in terms of coal or 4580 kg per capita. Hydropower accounted for 43% of total energy production, oil also 43%, natural gas 7%, coal and wood 3%. Norway's deep rivers and lakes have greater hydropower reserves than any other European country. Electricity, almost entirely generated by hydroelectric power, is the cheapest in the world, and its per capita production and consumption are the highest. In 1994, 25,712 kWh of electricity was produced per person. In general, more than 100 billion kWh of electricity is generated annually

Norway's manufacturing industry developed at a slow pace due to coal shortages, a narrow domestic market, and limited capital inflows. The manufacturing, construction and energy industries accounted for 26% of gross output and 17% of all employment in 1996. In recent years, energy-intensive industries have developed. The main industries in Norway are electrometallurgical, electrochemical, pulp and paper, radio electronics, and shipbuilding. The Oslofjord region has the highest level of industrialization, where approximately half of the country's industrial enterprises are concentrated. The leading industry is electrometallurgy, which relies on the widespread use of cheap hydropower. The main product, aluminum, is made from imported aluminum oxide. In 1996, 863.3 thousand tons of aluminum were produced. Norway is the main supplier of this metal in Europe. Norway also produces zinc, nickel, copper and high-quality alloy steel. Zinc is produced at a plant in Eitrheim on the coast of the Hardangerfjord, nickel is produced in Kristiansand from ore brought from Canada. A large ferroalloy plant is located in Sandefjord, southwest of Oslo. Norway is Europe's largest supplier of ferroalloys. In 1996, metallurgical output amounted to approx. 14% of the country's exports. One of the main products of the electrochemical industry is nitrogen fertilizers. The nitrogen required for this is extracted from the air using large amounts of electricity. A significant part of nitrogen fertilizers is exported.
Pulp and paper industry is an important industrial sector in Norway. In 1996, 4.4 million tons of paper and pulp were produced. Paper mills are located mainly near the vast forested areas of eastern Norway, for example at the mouth of the Glomma River (the country's largest timber rafting artery) and in Drammen. The production of various machines and transport equipment employs approx. 25% of industrial workers in Norway. The most important areas of activity are shipbuilding and ship repair, production of equipment for the production and transmission of electricity. The textile, clothing and food industries produce few products for export. They satisfy most of Norway's own needs for food and clothing. These industries employ approx. 20% of the country's industrial workers.
Transport and communications. Despite the mountainous terrain, Norway has well-developed internal communications. The state owns railways with a length of approx. 4 thousand km, of which over half are electrified. However, most of the population prefers to drive cars. In 1995, the total length of highways exceeded 90.3 thousand km, but only 74% of them had a hard surface. In addition to railways and roads, there were ferry services and coastal shipping. In 1946, Norway, Sweden and Denmark founded the Scandinavian Airlines Systems (SAS) airline. Norway has developed local air services: it ranks among the first in the world in terms of domestic passenger traffic. Communication means, including telephone and telegraph, remain in the hands of the state, but the issue of creating mixed enterprises with the participation of private capital is being considered. In 1996, there were 56 telephone sets per 1 thousand residents of Norway. The network of modern electronic communications is rapidly expanding. There is a significant private sector in radio and television broadcasting. Norwegian Public Broadcasting (NPB) remains the dominant system, despite the widespread use of satellite and cable television.
International trade. In 1997, Norway's leading trading partners in both export and import were Germany, Sweden and the UK, followed by Denmark, the Netherlands and the USA. The predominant export items by value are oil and gas (55%) and finished goods (36%). Products of the oil refining and petrochemical, forestry, electrochemical and electrometallurgical industries, and food are exported. The main import items are finished products (81.6%), food products and agricultural raw materials (9.1%). The country imports some types of mineral fuels, bauxite, iron, manganese and chrome ore, and cars. With rising oil production and exports in the late 1970s and early 1980s, Norway had a very favorable foreign trade balance. Then world oil prices fell sharply, exports declined, and for several years Norway's trade balance was in deficit. However, by the mid-1990s the balance became positive again. In 1996, the value of Norway's exports was $46 billion, and the value of imports was only $33 billion. The trade surplus is supplemented by large revenues from the Norwegian merchant fleet, with a total displacement of 21 million gross registered tons, which according to the new International Shipping Register received significant privileges allowing it to compete with other ships flying foreign flags.
Monetary circulation and the state budget. The unit of currency is the Norwegian krone. In 1997, government revenues amounted to 81.2 billion dollars, and expenses - 71.8 billion dollars. In the budget, the main sources of income were contributions to social security (19%), income and property taxes (33%), excise taxes and value added tax (31%). The main expenditures were allocated to social security and housing construction (39%), servicing external debt (12%), public education (13%) and healthcare (14%). In 1994, Norway's external debt was $39 billion. The government in the 1990s created a special oil fund using windfall profits from oil sales, intended as a reserve for when oil fields are depleted. It is estimated that by 2000 it will reach $100 billion, most of it placed abroad.
SOCIETY
Structure. The most common agricultural unit is the small family farm. With the exception of a few forest holdings, Norway has no large land holdings. Seasonal fishing is also often family-based and carried out on a small scale. Motorized fishing boats are mostly small wooden boats. In 1996, approximately 5% of industrial firms employed more than 100 workers, and even such large enterprises sought to establish informal relationships between workers and management. In the early 1970s, reforms were introduced that gave workers the right to exercise greater control over production. At some large enterprises, working groups began to monitor the progress of individual production processes themselves. Norwegians have a strong sense of equality. This egalitarian approach is the cause and consequence of using the economic levers of state power to mitigate social conflicts. There is a scale of income taxes. In 1996, approximately 37% of budget expenditures were directed to direct financing of the social sphere. Another mechanism for leveling social differences is strict state control over housing construction. Most of the loans are provided by the state housing bank, and construction is carried out by companies with cooperative ownership. Due to the climate and topography, construction is expensive, however, the ratio between the number of residents and the number of rooms they occupy is considered quite high. In 1990, there were an average of 2.5 people per dwelling consisting of four rooms with a total area of 103.5 square meters. m. Approximately 80.3% of the housing stock belongs to the individuals living in it.
Social Security. The National Insurance Scheme, a compulsory pension system covering all Norwegian citizens, was introduced in 1967. Health insurance and unemployment assistance were included in the system in 1971. All Norwegians, including housewives, receive a basic pension upon reaching 65 years of age. The additional pension depends on income and length of service. The average pension is approximately 2/3 of earnings in the highest paid years. Pensions are paid from insurance funds (20%), from contributions from employers (60%) and from the state budget (20%). Loss of income during illness is compensated by sickness benefits, and in case of long-term illness by disability pensions. Medical care is paid, but social insurance funds pay for all treatment costs exceeding $187 per year (doctor services, stay and treatment in public hospitals, maternity hospitals and sanatoriums, purchase of medicines for some chronic diseases, as well as full-time employment - two-week annual benefit in case of temporary disability). Women receive free prenatal and postnatal care, and full-time employed women are entitled to 42 weeks of paid maternity leave. The state guarantees all citizens, including housewives, the right to four weeks of paid leave. In addition, persons over 60 years of age have an additional week's leave. Families receive benefits of $1,620 per year for each child under 17 years of age. Every 10 years, all workers are entitled to an annual leave with full pay for training to improve their skills.
Organizations. Many Norwegians are involved in one or more voluntary organizations, catering to a variety of interests, most often related to sports and culture. Of great importance is the Sports Association, which organizes and supervises tourist and ski routes and supports other sports. The economy is also dominated by associations. Chambers of Commerce control industry and entrepreneurship. The Central Economic Organization (Nringslivets Hovedorganisasjon) represents 27 national trade associations. It was formed in 1989 by the merger of the Federation of Industry, the Federation of Craftsmen and the Association of Employers. The interests of shipping are expressed by the Association of Norwegian Shipowners and the Association of Scandinavian Shipowners, the latter is involved in concluding collective agreements with seafarers' unions. Small business activities are controlled mainly by the Federation of Trade and Service Enterprises, which in 1990 had approximately 100 branches. Other organizations include the Norwegian Forestry Society, which deals with forestry issues; the Federation of Agriculture, which represents the interests of livestock, poultry and agricultural cooperatives, and the Norwegian Trade Council, which promotes foreign trade and overseas markets. Trade unions in Norway are very influential, they unite approximately 40% (1.4 million) of all employees. The Central Association of Trade Unions of Norway (CNTU), founded in 1899, represents 28 unions with 818.2 thousand members (1997). Employers are organized in the Norwegian Employers' Confederation, founded in 1900. It represents their interests in collective bargaining agreements in enterprises. Labor disputes are often referred to arbitration court. In Norway, during the period 1988-1996, there were an average of 12.5 strikes per year. They are less common than in many other industrialized countries. The largest number of union members is in the management and manufacturing industries, although the highest coverage rates are observed in the maritime sectors. Many local trade unions are affiliated with local branches of the Norwegian Labor Party. Regional trade union associations and the CNPC provide funds for the party press and for the election campaigns of the Norwegian Labor Party.
Local diversity. Although the integration of Norwegian society has increased with improved communications, local customs are still alive in the country. In addition to promoting the New Norwegian language (Nynoshk), each county maintains its own dialects, maintains traditional costumes for ritual performances, supports the study of local history, and publishes local newspapers. Bergen and Trondheim, as former capitals, have cultural traditions that differ from those of Oslo. Northern Norway also develops a distinctive local culture, mainly as a result of the distance of its tiny settlements from the rest of the country.
Family. The close-knit family has been a specific feature of Norwegian society since Viking times. Most Norwegian surnames are of local origin, often associated with some natural features or with the economic development of land that occurred in Viking times or even earlier. Ownership of the family farm is protected by inheritance law (odelsrett), which gives the family the right to buy back the farm, even if it has recently been sold. In rural areas, the family remains the most important unit of society. Family members travel from far and wide to attend weddings, christenings, confirmations and funerals. This commonality often does not disappear in urban life. With the onset of summer, the favorite and most economical way for the whole family to spend holidays and vacations is to live in a small country house (hytte) in the mountains or on the seashore. The status of women in Norway is protected by the law and customs of the country. In 1981, Prime Minister Brundtland introduced an equal number of women and men into her cabinet, and all subsequent governments were formed according to the same principle. Women are widely represented in the judiciary, education, health care and management. In 1995, approximately 77% of women aged 15 to 64 worked outside the home. Thanks to a developed system of nurseries and kindergartens, mothers can work and run a household at the same time.
CULTURE
The roots of Norwegian culture go back to the Viking traditions, the medieval "age of greatness" and the sagas. Although Norwegian cultural masters were usually influenced by Western European art and assimilated many of its styles and subjects, their work nevertheless reflected the specifics of their native country. Poverty, the struggle for independence, admiration for nature - all these motives are manifested in Norwegian music, literature and painting (including decorative ones). Nature still plays an important role in folk culture, as evidenced by the Norwegians' extraordinary passion for sports and outdoor living. The media have great educational importance. For example, periodicals devote a lot of space to events in cultural life. The abundance of bookstores, museums and theaters also serves as an indicator of the keen interest of the Norwegian people in their cultural traditions.
Education. At all levels, education costs are covered by the state. The education reform launched in 1993 was supposed to improve the quality of education. The compulsory education program is divided into three levels: from pre-school to 4th grade, 5-7 grades and 8-10 grades. Teenagers between the ages of 16 and 19 can complete the secondary education necessary to enter a trade school, high school (college) or university. In rural areas of the country there are approx. 80 higher public schools where general education subjects are taught. Most of these schools receive funds from religious communities, private individuals or local authorities. Higher education institutions in Norway are represented by four universities (in Oslo, Bergen, Trondheim and Tromsø), six specialized high schools (colleges) and two state art schools, 26 state colleges in the county and further education courses for adults. In the 1995/1996 academic year, 43.7 thousand students studied at the country's universities; in other higher educational institutions - another 54.8 thousand. Education at universities is paid. Typically, students are provided with loans to obtain an education. Universities train civil servants, religious ministers and university teachers. In addition, universities almost exclusively supply doctors, dentists, engineers and scientists. Universities also engage in fundamental scientific research. The University of Oslo Library is the largest national library. Norway has numerous research institutes, laboratories and development bureaus. Among them, the Academy of Sciences in Oslo, the Christian Michelsen Institute in Bergen and the Scientific Society in Trondheim stand out. There are large folk museums on the island of Bygdøy near Oslo and in Maiheugen near Lillehammer, in which one can trace the development of building art and various aspects of rural culture since ancient times. In a special museum on the island of Bygdey, three Viking ships are exhibited, clearly illustrating the life of Scandinavian society in the 9th century. AD, as well as two ships of modern pioneers - Fridtjof Nansen's ship "Fram" and Thor Heyerdahl's raft "Kon-Tiki". Norway's active role in international relations is evidenced by the Nobel Institute, the Institute for Comparative Cultural Studies, the Peace Research Institute and the Society of International Law located in this country.
Literature and art. The spread of Norwegian culture was hampered by a limited audience, which was especially true for writers who wrote in the little-known Norwegian language. Therefore, the government has long begun to provide subsidies to support the arts. They are included in the state budget and are used to provide grants to artists, organize exhibitions and directly purchase works of art. In addition, income from state-run football competitions is provided to the General Research Council, which funds cultural projects. Norway has given the world outstanding figures in all fields of culture and art: playwright Henrik Ibsen, writers Bjornstern Bjornson (Nobel Prize 1903), Knut Hamsun (Nobel Prize 1920) and Sigrid Undset (Nobel Prize 1928), artist Edvard Munch and composer Edvard Grieg. The problematic novels of Sigurd Hull, the poetry and prose of Tarjei Vesos and the pictures of rural life in the novels of Johan Falkberget also stand out as achievements of Norwegian literature of the 20th century. Probably, in terms of poetic expressiveness, the writers who write in the New Norwegian language are most distinguished, among them the most famous is Tarjei Vesos (1897-1970). Poetry is very popular in Norway. Relative to the population, Norway produces several times more books than the United States, and many of the authors are women. The leading contemporary lyricist is Stein Mehren. However, the poets of the previous generation are much better known, especially Arnulf Everland (1889-1968), Nordal Grieg (1902-1943) and Hermann Willenwey (1886-1959). In the 1990s, Norwegian writer Jostein Gorder gained international recognition with his philosophical children's story Sophia's World. The Norwegian government supports three theaters in Oslo, five theaters in large provincial cities and one traveling national theater company. The influence of folk traditions can also be seen in sculpture and painting. The leading Norwegian sculptor was Gustav Vigeland (1869-1943), and the most famous artist was Edvard Munch (1863-1944). The work of these masters reflects the influence of abstract art in Germany and France. Norwegian painting showed a tendency toward frescoes and other decorative forms, especially under the influence of Rolf Nesch, who immigrated from Germany. The leader of the representatives of abstract art is Jacob Weidemann. The most famous promoter of conventional sculpture is Duret Vaux. The search for innovative traditions in sculpture was manifested in the works of Per Falle Storm, Per Hurum, Yusef Grimeland, Arnold Heukeland and others. The expressive school of figurative art, which played an important role in the artistic life of Norway in the 1980-1990s, is represented by such masters as Björn Carlsen (b. 1945), Kjell Erik Olsen (b. 1952), Per Inge Bjerlu (b. 1952) and Bente Stokke (b. 1952). Revival of Norwegian music in the 20th century. noticeable in the works of several composers. Harald Severud's musical drama based on Peer Gynt, Fartein Valen's atonal compositions, Klaus Egge's fiery folk music and Sparre Olsen's melodic interpretation of traditional folk music testify to the vital trends in contemporary Norwegian music. In the 1990s, Norwegian pianist and classical music performer Lars Ove Annsnes gained worldwide recognition.
Mass media. With the exception of the popular illustrated weeklies, the rest of the media are kept in a serious spirit. There are many newspapers, but their circulation is small. In 1996, 154 newspapers were published in the country, including 83 daily newspapers; the seven largest ones accounted for 58% of the total circulation. Radio broadcasting and television are state monopolies. Cinemas are mainly owned by the communes, and sometimes Norwegian-produced films subsidized by the state are successful. Usually American and other foreign films are shown.
Sports, customs and holidays. Outdoor recreation plays a big role in national culture. Football and the annual international ski jumping competition in Holmenkollen near Oslo are very popular. At the Olympic Games, Norwegian athletes most often excel in skiing and speed skating competitions. Popular activities include swimming, sailing, orienteering, hiking, camping, boating, fishing and hunting. All citizens in Norway are entitled to almost five weeks of paid annual leave, including three weeks of summer leave. Eight church holidays are celebrated; on these days people try to go out of town. The same applies to two national holidays - Labor Day (May 1) and Constitution Day (May 17).
STORY
The most ancient period. There is evidence that primitive hunters lived in some areas on the northern and northwestern coast of Norway shortly after the ice sheet retreated. However, naturalistic paintings on cave walls along the West Coast were created much later. Agriculture spread slowly to Norway after 3000 BC. During the Roman Empire, the inhabitants of Norway had contact with the Gauls, the development of runic writing (used from the 3rd to 13th centuries AD by Germanic tribes, especially the Scandinavians and Anglo-Saxons for tombstone inscriptions as well as for magic spells), and the settlement process territory of Norway was carried out at a rapid pace. From 400 AD the population was replenished by migrants from the south, who paved the “path to the north” (Nordwegr, hence the name of the country - Norway). At that time, the first tiny kingdoms were created to organize local self-defense. In particular, the Ynglings, a branch of the first Swedish royal family, founded one of the most ancient feudal states west of the Oslofjord.
Viking Age and mid-Middle Ages. Around 900, Harald the Fairhair (son of Halfdan the Black, a minor ruler of the Yngling family) managed to found a larger kingdom, winning, together with Earl Hladir of Trennelagh, over other minor feudal lords at the Battle of Havsfjord. Having suffered defeat and lost their independence, dissatisfied feudal lords took part in the Viking campaigns. Due to the growing population on the coast, some inhabitants were pushed into inland, infertile areas, while others began to pirate raids, engage in trade, or settle in overseas countries.
See also VIKINGS. The sparsely populated islands of Scotland were probably settled by people from Norway long before the first documented Viking expedition to England in 793 AD. Over the next two centuries, Norwegian Vikings were actively engaged in plundering foreign lands. They conquered possessions in Ireland, Scotland, northeastern England and northern France, and also colonized the Faroe Islands, Iceland and even Greenland. In addition to ships, the Vikings had iron tools and were skilled woodcarvers. Once in overseas countries, the Vikings settled there and expanded trade. In Norway itself, even before the creation of cities (they arose only in the 11th century), markets grew on the coasts of the fjords. The state left as a legacy by Harald Fairhair was the subject of fierce disputes between claimants to the throne for 80 years. Kings and jarls, pagan and Christian Vikings, Norwegians and Danes staged bloody showdowns. Olaf (Olav) II (c. 1016-1028), a descendant of Harald, managed to unite Norway for a short time and introduce Christianity. He was killed at the Battle of Stiklestad in 1030 by rebel chieftains (Hevdings) who had formed an alliance with Denmark. After his death, Olaf was almost immediately canonized and canonized in 1154. A cathedral was built in his honor in Trondheim, and after a short period of Danish rule (1028-1035), the throne was returned to his family. The first Christian missionaries in Norway were predominantly English; the abbots of English monasteries became owners of large estates. Only the carved decorations of the new wooden churches (dragons and other pagan symbols) were reminiscent of the Viking Age. Harald the Severe was the last Norwegian king to claim power in England (where he died in 1066), and his grandson Magnus III Barefoot was the last king to claim power in Ireland. In 1170, by decree of the pope, an archbishopric was created in Trondheim with five suffragan bishoprics in Norway and six in the western islands, Iceland and Greenland. Norway became the spiritual center of a vast territory in the North Atlantic. Although the Catholic Church wanted the throne to pass to the king's eldest legitimate son, this succession was often disrupted. The most famous is the impostor Sverre from the Faroe Islands, who seized the throne despite being excommunicated. During the long reign of Haakon IV (1217-1263), civil wars subsided and Norway entered a short-lived "era of prosperity". At this time, the creation of centralized government of the country was completed: a royal council was established, the king appointed regional governors and judicial officials. Although the regional legislative assembly (ting) inherited from the past still remained, in 1274 a national code of laws was adopted. The power of the Norwegian king was first recognized by Iceland and Greenland, and it was more firmly established than previously in the Faroe, Shetland and Orkney Islands. Other Norwegian possessions in Scotland were formally returned to the Scottish king in 1266. At this time, overseas trade flourished, and Haakon IV, whose residence was in the center of trade - Bergen, concluded the very first known trade agreement with the king of England. The 13th century was the last period of independence and greatness in Norway's early history. During this century, Norwegian sagas telling about the country's past were collected. In Iceland, Snorri Sturluson wrote Heimskringla and the Prose Edda, and Snorri's nephew, Sturla Thordsson, wrote the Icelanders' Saga, the Sturlinga Saga and the Håkon Håkonsson Saga, which are considered the earliest works of Scandinavian literature.
Kalmar Union. The decline in the role of the Norwegian merchant class began ca. 1250, when the Hanseatic League (which united the trading centers of northern Germany) established its office in Bergen. His agents imported grain from the Baltic countries in exchange for Norway's traditional export of dried cod. The aristocracy died out during the plague that struck the country in 1349 and killed almost half the entire population. Huge damage was caused to dairy farming, which formed the basis of agriculture on many estates. Against this background, Norway had become the weakest of the Scandinavian monarchies by the time, due to the extinction of the royal dynasties, Denmark, Sweden and Norway united in accordance with the Union of Kalmar 1397. Sweden left the union in 1523, but Norway was increasingly considered an appendage of the Danish crown, which ceded Orkney and Shetland to Scotland. Relations with Denmark became strained at the beginning of the Reformation, when the last Catholic archbishop of Trondheim tried unsuccessfully to oppose the introduction of a new religion in 1536. Lutheranism spread north to Bergen, a center of activity for German merchants, and then to more northern parts of the country. Norway received the status of a Danish province, which was ruled directly from Copenhagen and was forced to adopt the Lutheran Danish liturgy and bible. Until the middle of the 17th century. There were no prominent politicians or artists in Norway, and few books were published until 1643. The Danish king Christian IV (1588-1648) took a keen interest in Norway. He encouraged the mining of silver, copper and iron and fortified the frontier in the far north. He also established a small Norwegian army and promoted conscription in Norway and the construction of ships for the Danish navy. However, due to participation in the wars waged by Denmark, Norway was forced to permanently cede three border districts to Sweden. Around 1550, the first sawmills appeared in Norway, which contributed to the development of timber trade with Dutch and other foreign customers. The logs were floated down the rivers to the coast, where they were sawed and loaded onto ships. The revival of economic activity contributed to the growth of the population, which in 1660 amounted to approx. 450 thousand people versus 400 thousand in 1350. National rise in the 17-18 centuries. After the establishment of absolutism in 1661, Denmark and Norway began to be considered “twin kingdoms”; thus, their equality was formally recognized. In the law code of Christian IV (1670-1699), which had a great influence on Danish law, the serfdom that existed in Denmark did not extend to Norway, where the number of free landowners was rapidly growing. The civil, ecclesiastical, and military officials who ruled Norway spoke Danish, studied in Denmark, and administered that country's policies, but often belonged to families that had lived in Norway for generations. The mercantilism policy of that time led to the concentration of trade in cities. There, new opportunities opened up for immigrants from Germany, the Netherlands, Great Britain and Denmark and a class of merchant bourgeoisie developed, replacing the local nobility and the Hanseatic associations (the latter of these associations lost its privileges at the end of the 16th century). In the 18th century the timber was sold mainly to Great Britain and was often transported on Norwegian ships. Fish was exported from Bergen and other ports. Norwegian trade flourished especially during wars between the great powers. In an environment of growing prosperity in the cities, the preconditions were created for the establishment of a national Norwegian bank and university. Despite occasional protests against excessive taxes or illegal actions of government officials, in general the peasantry passively took a loyal position towards the king, who lived in distant Copenhagen. The ideas of the French Revolution had some influence on Norway, which was also greatly enriched by the expansion of trade during the Napoleonic wars. In 1807, the British subjected Copenhagen to brutal shelling and took the Danish-Norwegian fleet to England so that it would not fall to Napoleon. The blockade of Norway by English military courts caused great damage, and the Danish king was forced to establish a temporary administration - the Government Commission. After Napoleon's defeat, Denmark was forced to cede Norway to the Swedish king (according to the Treaty of Kiel, 1814). Refusing to submit, the Norwegians took advantage of the situation and convened a State (Constituent) Assembly of representatives nominated mainly from the wealthy classes. It adopted a liberal constitution and elected the Danish heir to the throne, Viceroy of Norway Christian Frederick, as king. However, it was not possible to defend independence due to the position of the great powers, which guaranteed Sweden the accession of Norway to it. The Swedes sent troops against Norway, and the Norwegians were forced to agree to a union with Sweden, while maintaining their constitution and independence in internal affairs. In November 1814, the first elected parliament - the Storting - recognized the power of the Swedish king.
Rule of the elite (1814-1884). The loss of the English timber market, intercepted by Canada, cost Norway dearly. The country's population, which grew from 1 million to 1.5 million people in the period 1824-1853, was forced to switch to supplying its own food mainly through subsistence agriculture and fishing. At the same time, the country needed to reform its central government. Politicians who defended the interests of the peasantry demanded lower taxes, but less than 1/10 of the citizens had the right to vote, and the population as a whole continued to rely on the ruling class of officials. The king (or his representative - the stateholder) appointed the Norwegian government, some of whose members visited the monarch in Stockholm. The Storting met every three years to review financial statements, respond to complaints, and repel any Swedish attempts to revise the agreement of 1814. The king had the right to veto decisions of the Storting, and approximately every eighth bill was rejected in this way. In the middle of the 19th century. The national economy began to rise. In 1849 Norway provided most of Britain's freight traffic. The free trade trends that prevailed in Great Britain in turn favored the expansion of Norwegian exports and opened the way to the import of British machinery, as well as the establishment of textile and other small industries in Norway. The government promoted the development of transport by providing subsidies for the organization of regular voyages of mail ships along the country's coast. Roads were built into previously inaccessible areas, and in 1854 traffic opened on the first railway. The revolutions of 1848, which swept across Europe, caused a direct response in Norway, where a movement arose defending the interests of industrial workers, small landowners and tenants. It was poorly prepared and quickly suppressed. Despite the intensified integration processes in the economy, living standards increased at a slow pace and, in general, life remained difficult. In subsequent decades, many Norwegians found a way out of this situation by emigrating. During the period from 1850 to 1920, 800 thousand Norwegians emigrated, mainly to the USA. In 1837 the Storting introduced a democratic system of local government, which gave new impetus to local political activity. As education became more accessible, the peasantry again became ready for long-term political activity. In the 1860s, stationary primary schools were created, replacing mobile ones, when one rural teacher moved from one locality to another. At the same time, the organization of secondary public schools began. The first political parties began to function in the Storting in the 1870s and 1880s. One group, conservative in nature, supported the ruling bureaucratic government. The opposition was led by Johan Sverdrup, who rallied peasant representatives around a small group of urban radicals who wanted to make the government accountable to the Storting. The reformers sought to amend the constitution by requiring royal ministers to participate in the meetings of the Storting without the right to vote. The government invoked the king's right to veto any constitutional bill. After fierce political debates, the Supreme Court of Norway in 1884 issued a ruling depriving almost all cabinet members of their portfolios. Having considered the possible consequences of a forceful decision, King Oscar II considered it better not to take risks and appointed Sverdrup as head of the first government, responsible to parliament.
Transition to a constitutional-parliamentary monarchy (1884-1905). Sverdrup's Liberal Democratic government extended suffrage and gave equal status to the New Norwegian language (Nynoshk) and Riksmål. However, on issues of religious tolerance, it split into radical liberals and puritans: the former had a base in the capital, and the latter on the west coast since the time of Heuge (late 18th century). This split is described in the works of famous writers - Ibsen, Bjornson, Kjelland and Jonas Lie, who criticized the traditional limitations of Norwegian society from different sides. However, the Conservative Party (Heire) did not benefit from the situation, since it received its main support from the uneasy alliance of the pinched bureaucracy and the slowly gaining strength of the middle industrial class. Cabinets changed quickly, each of them unable to resolve the main problem: how to reform the union with Sweden. In 1895, the idea arose to take control of foreign policy, which was the prerogative of the king and his foreign minister (also a Swede). However, the Storting usually intervened in intra-Scandinavian affairs concerning peace and economics, although such a system seemed unfair to many Norwegians. Their minimum demand was the establishment of an independent consular service in Norway, which the king and his Swedish advisers were unwilling to establish, given the size and importance of the Norwegian merchant fleet. After 1895, various compromise solutions to this issue were discussed. Since no solution could be reached, the Storting was forced to resort to the veiled threat of taking direct action against Sweden. At the same time, Sweden spent money on strengthening Norway's defense capabilities. After the introduction of compulsory conscription in 1897, it became difficult for conservatives to ignore calls for Norway's independence. Finally, in 1905, the union with Sweden was broken under a coalition government headed by the leader of the Liberal Party (Venstre), shipowner Christian Mikkelsen. When King Oscar refused to approve the law on the Norwegian consular service and accept the resignation of the Norwegian cabinet, the Storting voted to dissolve the union. This revolutionary action could have led to war with Sweden, but this was prevented by the great powers and the Social Democratic Party of Sweden, which opposed the use of force. Two plebiscites showed that the Norwegian electorate was almost unanimous in favor of Norway's secession and that 3/4 of the electorate voted to retain the monarchy. On this basis, the Storting invited the Danish Prince Charles, son of Frederick VIII, to take the Norwegian throne, and on November 18, 1905 he was elected king under the name Haakon VII. His wife Queen Maud was the daughter of the English King Edward VII, which strengthened Norway's ties with Great Britain. Their son, heir to the throne, later became King Olav V of Norway.
Period of peaceful development (1905-1940). The achievement of complete political independence coincided with the beginning of accelerated industrial development. At the beginning of the 20th century. The Norwegian merchant fleet was replenished with steamships, and whaling ships began to hunt in Antarctic waters. The liberal party Venstre was in power for a long period, which carried out a number of social reforms, including the full granting of voting rights to women in 1913 (Norway was a pioneer in this regard among European states) and the adoption of laws limiting foreign investment. During World War I, Norway remained neutral, although Norwegian sailors sailed on Allied ships that broke the blockade organized by German submarines. As a sign of Norway's gratitude for the country's support, the Entente in 1920 granted it sovereignty over the Svalbard archipelago (Spitsbergen). Wartime anxieties helped bring about reconciliation with Sweden, and Norway subsequently played a more active role in international life through the League of Nations. The first and last presidents of this organization were Norwegians. In domestic politics, the interwar period was marked by the growing influence of the Norwegian Workers' Party (NLP), which originated among fishermen and tenant farmers in the far north, and then received the support of industrial workers. Under the influence of the revolution in Russia, the revolutionary wing of this party gained the upper hand in 1918 and for some time the party was part of the Communist International. However, after the breakaway of the Social Democrats in 1921, the ILP broke off relations with the Comintern (1923). In the same year, the independent Communist Party of Norway (KPN) was formed, and in 1927 the Social Democrats again united with the CHP. In 1935, a government of moderate representatives of the CHP was in power with the support of the Peasant Party, which gave its votes in exchange for subsidies to agriculture and fishing. Despite the unsuccessful experiment with prohibition (repealed in 1927) and the mass unemployment generated by the crisis, Norway has achieved success in the fields of health care, housing construction, social security and cultural development.
The Second World War. On April 9, 1940, Germany unexpectedly attacked Norway. The country was taken by surprise. Only in the Oslofjord area were the Norwegians able to offer stubborn resistance to the enemy thanks to reliable defensive fortifications. For three weeks, German troops dispersed throughout the interior of the country, preventing individual units of the Norwegian army from uniting. The port city of Narvik in the far north was retaken from the Germans within days, but Allied support was insufficient and, as Germany launched offensive operations in Western Europe, Allied forces had to be evacuated. The king and government fled to Great Britain, where he continued to lead the merchant marine, small infantry units, navy and air force. The Storting gave the king and government the authority to govern the country from abroad. In addition to the ruling CHP, members of other parties were introduced into the government in order to strengthen it. A puppet government was created in Norway led by Vidkun Quisling. In addition to acts of sabotage and active underground propaganda, the leaders of the Resistance secretly established military training and transported many young people to Sweden, where permission was received to train “police forces.” The king and government returned to the country on June 7, 1945. Proceedings were initiated in approx. 90 thousand cases on charges of treason and other offenses. Quisling, along with 24 traitors, was shot, 20 thousand people were sentenced to prison.
Norway after 1945. The CHP received a majority of votes for the first time in the 1945 elections and remained in power for 20 years. During this period, the electoral system was transformed by repealing the constitutional clause providing 2/3 of the seats in the Storting to deputies from rural areas of the country. The regulatory role of the state was expanded to national planning. State control over prices for goods and services was introduced. The government's financial and credit policy helped maintain fairly high growth rates of economic indicators even during the global recession in the 1970s. The necessary funds to expand production were obtained through large foreign loans against future income from oil and gas production on the North Sea shelf. In the immediate post-war years, Norway showed the same commitment to the UN that it had shown to the League of Nations before the war. However, the Cold War atmosphere put the Scandinavian defense treaty on the agenda. Norway joined NATO from the very beginning of its founding in 1949. Since 1961, the ILP remained one of the largest parties in the Storting, although it did not have a majority of seats there. In 1965, a coalition of non-socialist parties came to power with a slight majority of votes. In 1971, the CHP again won the elections, and the government was headed by Trygve Brateli. In the 1960s, Norway established strong ties with the EEC countries, especially the Federal Republic of Germany. However, many Norwegians opposed joining the common market, fearing competition from European countries in fishing, shipbuilding and other sectors of the economy. In 1972, at a general referendum, the question of Norway's participation in the EEC was decided negatively, and the Brateli government resigned. It was replaced by a non-socialist government led by Lars Korwall of the Christian People's Party. In 1973 it entered into a free trade agreement with the EEC, which created great advantages for the export of a number of Norwegian goods. After the 1973 elections, the government was again headed by Brateli, although the CHP did not receive a majority of seats in the Storting. In 1976, Odvar Nurli came to power. As a result of the 1976 elections, the CHP again formed a minority government. In February 1981, citing deteriorating health, Nurli resigned, and Gro Harlem Bruntland was appointed prime minister. Center-right parties increased their influence in the September 1981 elections, and the leader of the Conservative Party (Heire) Kåre Willock formed the first government from members of this party since 1928. At this time, Norway's economy was booming due to rapid growth in oil production and high prices on the world market. In the 1980s, environmental issues became important. In particular, the forests of Norway have been severely damaged by acid rain caused by the release of pollutants into the atmosphere by UK industries. As a result of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident in 1986, significant damage was caused to the Norwegian reindeer herding industry. After the 1985 elections, negotiations between the socialists and their opponents reached a dead end. Falling oil prices created inflation and problems arose with financing social security programs. Willock resigned and Brundtland returned to power. The results of the 1989 elections made it difficult to form a coalition government. The conservative government of the non-socialist minority under the leadership of Jan Suse resorted to unpopular measures, which stimulated an increase in unemployment. A year later, it resigned due to disagreements over the creation of the European Economic Area. The Workers' Party, led by Brutland, again formed a minority government, which in 1992 resumed negotiations on Norway's accession to the EU. In the 1993 elections, the Workers' Party remained in power, but did not receive a majority of seats in parliament. Conservatives - from the very right (the Progress Party) to the very left (the People's Socialist Party) - were increasingly losing their positions. The center party, which opposed joining the EU, received three times as many seats and moved into second place in terms of influence in parliament. The new government has again brought up the issue of Norway's accession to the EU. This proposal was actively supported by voters from three parties - the Workers, the Conservative and the Progress Party, living in cities in the south of the country. The Center Party, which represents the interests of the rural population and farmers, who are mostly opposed to the EU, led the opposition, receiving support from the far left and Christian Democrats. In a national referendum in November 1994, Norwegian voters, despite positive results in Sweden and Finland a few weeks earlier, again rejected Norway's participation in the EU. A record number of voters took part in the voting (86.6%), of which 52.2% were against EU membership, and 47.8% were in favor of joining this organization.
In October 1996 Gro Harlem Brundtland
resigned and was replaced by CHP leader Thorbjörn Jagland. Despite the strengthening of the economy, the reduction of unemployment and the stabilization of inflation, the country's new leadership was unable to ensure the victory of the CHP in the elections in September 1997. The Jagland government resigned in October 1997. The center-right parties still did not have a common position on the issue of participation in the EU. The Progress Party, which opposed immigration and favored the rational use of the country's oil resources, this time gained more seats in the Storting (25 versus 10). Moderate center-right parties refused any cooperation with the Progress Party. HPP leader Kjell Magne Bundevik, a former Lutheran pastor, formed a coalition of three centrist parties (HNP, Center Party and Venstre), representing only 42 of the 165 deputies of the Storting. On this basis a minority government was formed. In the early 1990s, Norway achieved increased prosperity through large-scale oil and gas exports. The sharp drop in world oil prices in 1998 had a heavy impact on the country's budget, and there was such severe discord in the government that Prime Minister Bundevik was forced to take a month's leave to “restore his peace of mind.” In the 1990s, the royal family attracted media attention. In 1994, unmarried Princess Mertha Louise became involved in divorce proceedings in Great Britain. In 1998, the King and Queen were criticized for overspending public funds on their apartments. Norway is actively involved in international cooperation, in particular in resolving the situation in the Middle East. In 1998 Bruntland was appointed director general of the World Health Organization. Jens Stoltenberg served as UN High Commissioner for Refugees. Norway continues to be criticized by environmentalists for ignoring agreements to limit the fishing of marine mammals - whales and seals.
LITERATURE
Eramov R.A. Norway. M., 1950 Yakub V.L. Norwegian. M., 1962 Andreev Yu.V. Economy of Norway. M., 1977 History of Norway. M., 1980

Collier's Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .

Economic and geographical position of Norway

The Kingdom of Norway is located in northern Europe and stretches in a narrow strip along the northwestern coast of the Scandinavian Peninsula.

In the north, west and south, the country has open access to the Atlantic Ocean through the North, Norwegian, and Barents Seas. The coastline of the country is heavily indented by narrow and long bays, called fjords. The total length of the coast is 25,148 km.

The land border in the southeast is with Sweden, Finland and Russia. The section of the border with Russia is very short and amounts to 196 km.

All islands, islets and rocks located in its territorial waters are part of the country. A number of its islands are located at a considerable distance, for example, the Spitsbergen archipelago, Jan Mayen Island between the Greenland and Norwegian Seas, and Bouvet Island in the southern Atlantic.

In addition, Norway claims Peter I Island off the coast of Antarctica and Queen Maud Land, but they are not part of Norway.

The sea has always played a major role in the country's economy. It was famous for international shipping, fishing and whaling.

The presence of wild rivers in terms of hydropower reserves has brought Norway to first place among Western European countries. The leading role in external and internal relations belongs to shipping, which is associated with the historical skills of the Norwegians and the peculiarities of its geographical location.

The Norwegian fleet, which suffered during World War II, was restored and modernized. The country is one of the leading shipping states in the world, and ranks 5th in terms of merchant fleet tonnage.

Transport of goods between foreign ports annually brings in billions of crowns in foreign currency.

The country's road and rail networks are of limited extent. The length of railways is 4.24 thousand km, and the length of roads is 79.8 thousand km.

The country's air gateway is Forneby Airport, located near the capital. Norway occupies one of the first places in the world in terms of passenger transportation by air.

The country is industrial and agricultural, with a high level of development of energy-intensive industries, shipping, and fishing.

With the discovery of oil fields in recent years, oil refining and petrochemical complexes began to develop.

The structure of Norway's economy is undergoing changes that affect its exports and imports. The share of fish and fish products in exports is decreasing, the share of electrometallurgy and electrochemistry, and forest processing has decreased.

But the share of engineering products is growing rapidly. Exports of hydrocarbons, especially gas, are growing.

Imports are very diverse; Norway imports engineering products, including ships and cars. Its largest partners:

Sweden,
Germany,
Great Britain.

The country gained state independence in 1905. After World War II, its political course is determined by participation in NATO and close military-economic cooperation with the leading countries of the bloc.

Norway regulates its relations with the European Union by a free trade agreement of 1973.

Note 1

Thus, the economic and geographical position of this northern European country is quite favorable, and it was able to extract from it all the positive factors for the development of its economy.

Natural conditions of Norway

Most of Norway is occupied by the Scandinavian mountains. They are composed of granites and gneisses, their eastern slopes are gentle, and their western slopes are short and steep.

Norway has both mountains in the southern part of the country, and between them there is a vast highland. The height of the mountains increases with movement to the south and reaches its maximum heights - the peak of Mount Gallhöppigen, 2469 m high.

The surface of many highlands looks like plateaus, which are called “widda”. The mountains were characterized by glaciation during the Ice Age, but modern glaciers are not large. The snow line in the mountains is at an altitude of 900-1500 m.

After the melting of the glacier, the lower reaches of the ancient valleys found themselves under water, where fjords were formed, many of which have great depths.

Islands located near the coast protect the fjords from strong winds from the Atlantic. Fjords are of economic importance.

Compared to Russian Siberia and American Alaska, located at the same latitude, Norway's climate is not very harsh. The reason for this is the warm Gulf Stream, which warms the coast of the country.

The maritime climate is temperate with cool summers and fairly warm winters. The July temperature is +6, +15 degrees, but it varies depending on the area. In the south of the country it can be +17 degrees, but in the north at the same time only +7 degrees. On some days the thermometer rises to +30 degrees.

The January temperature is +2, -12 degrees; as you move east, the climate becomes continental, and the thermometer can drop to -50 degrees.

The snow that falls lasts from November to April. The north of the country lies within the subarctic climate and the temperature regime is similar to neighboring countries. The average remains at -22 degrees.

More precipitation falls on the coast; as you move east, the amount decreases. The central and eastern parts are drier.

In flat areas 500-600 mm will fall, and on the windward side of the mountains 2000-2500 mm. Their maximum number occurs in September and October.

The seas surrounding Norway do not freeze in winter. In spring, the air temperature gradually rises, but there is little precipitation, but there are many sunny days.

Natural resources of Norway

A variety of mineral resources are concentrated in the depths of the state. Most of the hydrocarbons are concentrated in the North Sea, the country ranks first among European countries in oil reserves, and ranks second in natural gas reserves.

Note 2

Industrial oil reserves in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea were estimated at 1.5 billion tons, and natural gas at 765 billion cubic meters. m. This is 3/4 of all reserves in Western Europe.

The oil fields of the Barents Sea are at the stage of industrial development. Large coal deposits are concentrated on the island of Spitsbergen.

As of 2002, coal reserves were estimated at 10 billion tons. There are 4 mines in the central part of the island of Eastern Spitsbergen.

Norway's main metal resource is iron ore, in terms of reserves of which the country ranks 6-7th among European countries. Iron ores are represented by ferruginous quartzites and magnetite-hematite ores. The total reserves of ferruginous quartzites are 1 billion tons, and reliable reserves are 100 million tons.

Norway ranks second after Finland in terms of vanadium ore reserves. Their reserves are estimated at 12-15 million tons. Norway occupies a leading place among European countries in terms of reserves of titanium ores, and in terms of copper reserves it is among the top ten European countries.

The only vein deposit of molybdenum ore in Europe is located in Norway. Reserves of nickel ores, polymetals, and niobium are average. There are also silver, lead-zinc deposits, gold, phosphate ores, graphite, marble and some other minerals, but their deposits are not very large.

Norway has significant hydropower reserves. The country's hydro resources are distributed evenly.

Forest resources occupy about 40% of the country's territory, of which 15% of forest areas are not suitable for industrial use, as they are located far from transport routes.

Most of the forests are privately owned, but despite this, Norwegians have the right to visit the forest at any time. Landforms limit the opportunities for plant growth and development, so fertile soils are concentrated mainly in the south of the country. They cover only 4% of the territory.